![]() | Updated: 6/21/2020 |
Austronesian Comparative Dictionary
Cognate Sets
qa
33478 *qa particle expressing confirmation: indeed 12199 PPh *qa particle expressing confirmation: indeed
27694 4395 PAN *qa₁ locative particle [disjunct: *Sa₂]
30406 *qa₂ interrogative particle 7526 PAN *qa₂ interrogative particle
Note: Given the brevity of this form and the fact that the comparison is currently confined to just two languages the similarity between Thao qa and Kavalan i may be due to chance. However, the sound correspondences are regular, the meaning and distribution are identical, and there is no other competitor that has been reconstructed in this meaning or function.
27544 4097 Note: Also Tsou apaŋə ‘boat, canoe, Favorlang/Babuza abak ‘small boat or sampan’. Given the independent evidence for PAn *layaR ‘sail’ we can be sure that PAn speakers had boats with sails. However, we cannot be certain that they possessed the outrigger, since *saRman ‘outrigger float’ and other terms connected with the outrigger canoe complex are reconstructible only to PMP. As noted in Blust (1999) the Austronesian settlement of Taiwan may have been accomplished with bamboo sailing rafts, leaving open the possibility that the *qabaŋ was a simple dugout canoe used on interior rivers.
27545 *qabaŋ₂ float 4098 PWMP *qabaŋ₂ float
4099 PWMP *qabaŋ qabaŋ float
Note: Also Toba Batak habaŋ-habaŋ ‘fly back and forth, of a flag’.
27538 *qabaRa₁ shoulder 4087 PAN *qabaRa₁ shoulder
4088 PMP *qabaRa₁ shoulder; carry on the shoulder
10678 POC *qapaRa₁ shoulder; carry on the shoulder
4089 PAN *qabaRa-an shoulder (?)
Note: Also Gaddang afa ‘shoulder’, Tboli abal ‘shoulder’, Sa'a hala ‘shoulder’, Sa'a apala ‘shoulder’. In addition to meaning ‘shoulder’, unaffixed reflexes of PMP *qabaRa mean ‘to carry on the shoulder’ in various CEMP languages, and in Chamorro. Although one would normally expect the body part term to be semantically primary and the verb derived, PAn *qabaRa-an (‘place of shoulder-carrying’) suggests that *qabaRa originally meant ‘carry on the shoulder’. Some WMP and OC languages irregularly reflect this form without the initial syllable (Maranao waga, Tiruray wara, Mono-Alu fala, Nggela vala, etc.). This may indicate that *qabaRa contains a prefix *qa- seen also in *qa-lima ‘hand’ and perhaps *qa-qaqi ‘foot’ (although tentatively I have reconstructed the latter as *qaqay). PMP *baRa ‘hand, arm’ seems clearly to be distinct, as it is reflected with the meaning ‘hand’ in the great majority of witnesses.
27539 *qabaRa₂ topmost hand of banana stalk 4090 PMP *qabaRa₂ topmost hand of banana stalk
10679 POC *qapaRa₂ topmost hand of banana stalk
Note: Probably a metaphorical extension of *qabaRa₁ (the ‘shoulders’ of the banana stalk). Although Mansaka abága ‘top hand on a stalk of bananas’ and abagá ‘shoulder’ carry different accents, this divergence may have arisen from historical changes which were intended to more clearly distinguish between forms no longer regarded as related. For Molima Chowning (n.d. b.) gives a single lexical entry ʔavala-na, avala-na ‘shoulder; topmost hands of banana’.
27540 4091 PAN *qabaS notch cut in a tree
Note: Possibly a product of convergent innovations.
27541 4092 PMP *qabated sago grub [disjunct: *qabateR]
4093 POC *qapator sago grub [disjunct: *qapatoR]
Note: Also Tiruray lebuted ‘the larvae of the coconut black beetle, Oryctes rhincerus Linn.’, Samoan ʔafato ‘grub, larva (some are edible)’, Rennellese ahato ‘Longicorn beetle, Olethrius tyrranus Thompson, Wolff, highly desired as food’. Entirely apart from the evidence for disjuncts *qabated and *qabateR, there are several noteworthy irregularities in this comparison. First, although Tongan appears to confirm the initial *q-, it has first-syllable /o/ rather than the anticipated **a/. Second, Samoan has an initial glottal stop for expected zero, finally and Rennellese has initial zero for expected glottal stop.
27542 4094 PMP *qabateR sago grub [doublet: *qabatiR] [disjunct: *qabated]
4095 POC *qapatoR sago grub [disjunct: *qapator]
Note: Also Ilokano bátar ‘a kind of white larva’, b<in>átar ‘infested by the bátar larva’, Bontok bátel ‘the grub of a kind of wood-boring beetle’, Ifugaw bat-batól ‘great green caterpillar covered with hair’, Ifugaw (Batad) bātol ‘a large larva, of a long-horned beetle … or a honey bee’, Simalur batəl ‘white woodworm’, Mentawai batara ‘beetle larva’, Sasak batah ‘worm (in maize, trees, rice)’, batah pandan ‘larva of the pandanus beetle’, Mongondow obatok ‘large larva in e.g. a sago palm or a coconut palm’, Rembong wate ‘wood grub’, and Nggela vato ‘a species of grub, eaten as food on Mala’.
For Paulohi of the central Moluccas Stresemann (1918) gives hatele ina-i (‘mother of the sago grub’) as the name of the adult growth stage. In a similar vein, Elbert (1975) notes that among the Polynesian-speaking Rennellese of the Southeastern Solomons "Informants are uncertain as to the "mother" of the ahato, but possibly the manumogi, which deposits eggs in certain trees." This suggests that at least by PCEMP times the mature growth stage was represented lexically by a genitive construction *ina ni qabateR.
27543 4096 PMP *qabatiR sago grub [doublet: *qabateR]
Note: Also Ilokano bátir ‘a kind of larva, white worm’, batir-en ‘plant disease caused by the bátir’, Nauna kahek ‘sago grub’.
27707 4408 PWMP *qa(m)bej wind around [doublet: *Ra(m)bej]
Note: With root *-bej ‘wind around repeatedly’.
27594 4203 POC *qabi take hold of, grasp [disjunct: *ampi]
27546 *qabin hold or carry under the arm 4100 PMP *qabin hold or carry under the arm
4101 PWMP *meŋ-qabin hold or carry under the arm
Note: Also Maranao aben ‘hold in the lap’, Kenyah (Long Wat) bin ‘carry on the back’, Melanau (Mukah) bin ‘carry on the back’. Toba Batak abiŋ ‘carry in the lap; carry off a woman by force’, abiŋ-an ‘lap, place where one carries a child’, Nggela avih-i ‘carry a child under the arm’. Although the gloss given to this form is justified by very similar meanings in both WMP and OC languages, an essential part of the meaning in PWMP appears to have been a condition that the contact between thing carried and person carrying was on or near the lower abdomen.
27547 *qabiq finished, used up; all, every one 4102 PWMP *qabiq finished, used up; all, every one [doublet: *qabis]
Note: Also Javanese kabéh ‘(in) all, every one’.
27548 *qabis finished, used up; all, every one 4103 PWMP *qabis finished, used up; all, every one [doublet: *qabiq]
Note: Also Sangir kebiʔ ‘all, every’.
33736 *qabqab to eat or drink voraciously (derogatory) 12492 PPh *qabqab to eat or drink voraciously (derogatory)
Note: Also Aklanon hábhab ‘to eat sloppily and hurriedly’, Cebuano habháb ‘for pigs to eat; for people to eat (derogatory), Manobo (Western Bukidnon) habhab ‘of a person, to eat as an animal eats without the use of hands, used only in a derogatory or joking sense; of a pig, to eat in its characteristic manner’, Tausug habhab ‘to eat or drink voraciously’.
27554 4114 4115 PMP *qabu ash, hearth, cinder, powder, dust; gray
4116 4117 PWMP *ma-qabu covered with ashes; ashen, gray
4118 PWMP *maŋ-qabu cover with ashes, put ashes on
4119 PWMP *paR-qabu-an place of ashes
4120 PWMP *q<in>abu was covered with ashes
4121 PAN *qabu-an place of ashes; hearth
4122 PWMP *qabu-en (gloss uncertain)
Note: Also Nias awu ‘ash; hearth, kitchen’, Balinese awu ‘ashes, dust’, Balinese awon ‘ashes, ash’, Sasak abu ‘ash; ash-gray (specifically of carrier-pigeons)’, Sasak awu ‘ash from firewood in the kitchen’, Leti apu ‘ash’, Manam apoaŋ ‘fireplace, ashes’. *qabu is among the most widespread and stable morphemes in the Austronesian family. It referred to ashes, and prototypically to the ashes in the fireplace (hence its recurrent replacement of PMP *dapuR in the meaning ‘hearth’). Dyen (1953:29) erred doubly in positing *abuh, the erroneous initial following from his acceptance of Dempwolff's use of Tongan efu ‘ash’ (actually a reflex of *dapuR), and the erroneous final from his overconfidence in the evidentiary value of thematic -/h/ in the Tagalic languages.
Apart from the meanings given here it is likely that some form of *qabu was used to designate a type of plumage for domestic fowls in PPh (cf. Ilokano ábo ‘cock with gray plumage and reddish tail’, Cebuano manuk ŋa abúhun ‘gray-colored cock’), and perhaps in PWMP (cf. Sasak abu ‘ash-gray, specifically of carrier pigeons’). Finally, both the reduplication of *qabu in various daughter languages, and forms assigned to *paR-qabu-an here may be products of convergence. The same explanation probably accounts for the agreement of Kenyah (Long Wat) umaʔ avew ‘kitchen’ with Kambera uma aü ‘cooking place, place of the hearth fire’.
27549 *qabu qabu fish sp. 4104 PWMP *qabu qabu fish sp.
27550 *qabud strew, scatter, sprinkle 4105 PWMP *qabud strew, scatter, sprinkle [disjunct: *qambuR]
Note: Sundanese awur ‘strewing; to strew, scatter’ is assumed to be a borrowing from Javanese.
27551 *qabug dust 4106 PWMP *qabug dust [doublet: *qabuk] [disjunct: *abuR]
27552 4107 PMP *qabuk dust, sawdust [doublet: *apuk]
4108 POC *qapuk dust
4109 PPh *alik-qabuk dust
Note: Also Bintulu abuk ‘sawdust’, Tongan afu-afu ‘fine drizzling rain’. With root *-buk₁ ‘decay, crumble; powder’.
Although reflexes of *qabu ‘ash’ and *qabuk ‘dust’ clearly are distinct in languages which preserve final consonants, the inclusion of Oceanic reflexes under *qabuk rather than *qabu is based entirely on semantic fit. Whereas *qabu evidently referred to ashes, and prototypically to the ashen residue in the hearth, *qabuk evidently designated a range of fine particulate matter produced without combustion (despite occasional semantic cross-over, as in the Sasak and Banggai reflexes). Although only the meanings ‘dust’ and ‘sawdust’ can be justified by the glosses of cognates in primary branches of MP, the meaning ‘powder’ can be added for PWMP. Consideration of the root *-buk₁ suggests further that PMP *qabuk probably referred additionally to the powder produced by weevil-infested, or decaying wood. Finally, Richardson (1885) cites Malagasy maŋ-àvoka under hávoka, but with a question mark indicating uncertainty regarding the shape of the unaffixed stem.
24839 *qábut to reach, overtake, catch up with 241 PPh *qábut to reach, overtake, catch up with
12099 PPh *i-qábut (gloss uncertain)
12100 PPh *q<um>-ábut to reach, attain
12101 PPh *qábut-an (gloss uncertain)
12102 PPh *qábut-en to reach, catch up with
12412 PPh *ma-qábut within reach (?)
Note: Also Hanunóo áput ‘reach, reaching, as with the hand; arriving’, Hawu abo, abu ‘meet, come across, encounter’. Central Sama um-abut ‘extend, stretch, be enough’, ta-abut ‘be reached, overtaken’ are assumed to be borrowings from a Central Philippine language.
27555 *qaCay liver 4123 PAN *qaCay liver
4125 PMP *qatay liver; seat of the emotions, inner self: core, mind, will, desire, feeling, intelligence, understanding; to want or wish; hollow of the palm of the hand or sole of the foot; pith, as of bamboo
4126 PMP *qatay-an (gloss uncertain)
4127 PMP *buaq ni qatay heart (figurative); term of endearment
4128 PMP *qalap qatay (lit. 'fetch the liver') capture someone's fancy
4129 POC *qate qate calf of the leg
4130 PWMP *qulu ni qatay pit of the stomach
4131 PMP *X₁ + qatay (lit. 'big liver') brave, courageous; proud, arrogant
4132 PMP *X₂ + qatay (lit. 'burning liver') angry, furious
4133 PMP *X₃ + qatay (lit. 'rotten liver') full of malice
4134 PMP *X₄ + qatay (lit. 'sick/hurt liver') resentful, offended
4135 PMP *X₅ + qatay (lit. 'small liver') afraid
4136 PMP *X₆ + qatay (lit. 'white liver') pure-hearted
Note: Also Isneg agtáy ‘liver’, Casiguran Dumagat agtë ‘liver’, Ifugaw alte ‘liver’, Bontok agtéy ‘liver’, Pangasinan altéy ‘liver’, Sambal (Botolan) ágtay ‘liver’, Bikol katóy ‘liver’, Iban atau ‘liver, heart’, Makassarese ati ‘inner self, courage, heart’; ati-ati ‘heart-shaped; do one's best’, Numfor kè-n ‘liver’, Banoni date ‘liver’, Gilbertese ato ‘liver; clot of blood, clotted blood’. For reasons that remain unclear, most members of the Cordilleran and Central Luzon subgroups of Philippine languages (Blust 1991) reflect *qaRtay; although *-R- in these reflexes appears to be infixed, it has no identifiable meaning. Similar phonological problems are found with some other forms (e.g. PPh *qaRta; reflexes of *qata ‘outsiders, alien people’), but in most cases a doublet can be reconstructed.
A number of other interesting problems are connected with this form, including the following: 1)Dempwolff reconstructed *qatay ‘liver’, but it is clear that this term had a cultural importance greatly transcending simple reference to the physical organ. Many attested glosses refer to the liver as the inner self, the seat of the emotions, will, and desire and mind, in short as the cultural equivalent of the metaphorical ‘heart’ in Indo-European languages. The absence of competing reconstructions for such essential verbal notions as ‘to think’, ‘to feel’, and ‘to desire’ is also consistent with a hypothesis that *qaCay whether alone, affixed, or in combination with other free morphemes, represented these meanings;
2) nominal compounds or descriptive phrases which make use of the morpheme for ‘liver’ as the metaphorical ‘heart’ sometimes show a similar semantic structure cross-linguistically (‘big liver’, ‘burning liver’, ‘white liver’, etc.); examples of such usages are cited here if a fairly clear-cut meaning can be reconstructed, even when the complete phonological form is unattainable directly. Undoubtedly, many more expressions relating to the emotions will be reconstructed with *qaCay when more complete descriptive sources become available. No such morphologically complex expressions have been recorded for any Formosan language, but this may simply reflect the rudimentary stage of lexicography in the Formosan field. On the other hand, although the Philippines is lexicographically well-represented, very few compounds with a reflex of *qaCay have been recorded, and, surprisingly, none of these relate to the emotions;
3) PMP *qatay-an is only weakly attested in the data, but is proposed to unite several disparate observations under a single explanation. Next to the meaning ‘liver’ many glosses include the meanings ‘inside, inner part’ and this semantic component of PMP *qatay no doubt lies behind the diachronic change of *dalem ‘in, inside’ to e.g. Ilokano dálem Elat raro Watubela lamno, Alune lale ‘liver’ and Buruese lale-n ‘liver; inside, heart, mind’; lale-t ‘heart, attitude, will’. Similarly, expressions such as Malay dalam hati ‘in one's heart; to oneself, secretly or silently’ (borrowed as Tagalog dalam-hatíʔ ‘extreme sorrow’) appear to be restructurings of *qatay-an with replacement of the suffixed ‘locative focus’ marker by a locative preposition. The expected Mussau form is **ateana, but this form apparently was reanalyzed as /atea/ plus the 3sg. possessive pronoun -/na/, giving rise to a new free form: /atea-gi/ ‘my liver’, /atea-m/ ‘your (sg.) liver’, /atea-na/ ‘his/her/its liver’;
4) even in its purely physical sense there is more to be said about *qaCay than simple reference to the liver. The glosses cited here for Malay, Rembong, Rotinese, Wetan and Kwaio all suggest that the liver was conceived as part of a larger anatomical unit. In all glosses except that of Rembong this larger anatomical unit includes the heart, while in all glosses except that of Malay it includes the lungs. In field elicitation ‘liver’ and ‘heart’ are often confused by Austronesian-speaking informants, probably because in common sacrificial animals such as chickens they are in closer physical proximity to one another than is the case in the human body.
The association of liver and lungs is more subtle. Fox, J. (1974) notes that in Rotinese formal dyadic language (also known as ritual parallelism) many lexical items are paired with at least one ‘linking term’ to form a convention association for purposes of achieving rhetorical effect. Among the entries in his dictionary for which a linking term is given Fox lists ate ‘liver’. The link is ba ‘lungs’, and for the latter also a single linking term is given: ate ‘lungs’. Strikingly, a kind of converse association appears in Simalur of the Barrier Islands west of Sumatra, where PAn *baRaq ‘lungs’ is reflected as bala ‘lung, also: liver’ (Kähler 1961). Whether these agreements indicate that a dyadic link connected *qatay and *baRaq in some type of formal ritual language in PMP, or simply that the liver and lungs were conceived as part of a single larger anatomical unit is unclear, although the apparent absence of comparative evidence for other dyadic sets favors the latter interpretation. Perhaps to be connected with this interpretation are the occasional reflexes of *qaCay meaning ‘intestines’: Sangir tatuno ate ‘intestines, used in maledictory expressions’, Proto-Ambon *(h)ata(y), Lakalai la hate viriviri ‘intestines’.
27556 *qaCeb deadfall trap to catch small mammals 4137 PAN *qaCeb deadfall trap to catch small mammals
Note: Also Itbayaten kateb ‘coconut-crab trap’, Sangir atebeʔ ‘bamboo trap for crabs’.
27559 *qaCi ebb, of water in streams 4141 PAN *qaCi ebb, of water in streams
4142 PMP *qati ebb, of water in streams; low tide [doublet: *qeti]
4143 4144 PAN *ma-qaCi ebb, of water in streams; low tide [doublet: *qeti₁]
4145 PMP *ma-qati ebb, of water in streams; low tide [doublet: *qeti₁]
12641 POC *maqati ebb tide, dry reef
Note: Also Kapampangan kati(h) ‘low water-level’, Mansaka atiʔ ‘dry up (of water); evaporate’; Lou ramet ‘reef; dry reef’, Mota meat ‘ebb, low tide’.
27558 *qaCi- prefix variant of the *qali/kali- set 4140 PAN *qaCi- prefix variant of the *qali/kali- set
Note: For an explanation of the analysis and function of this affix, which is almost invariably fossilized in the words in which it appears, cf. Blust (2001).
27557 *qaCipa soft-shelled turtle 4138 PAN *qaCipa soft-shelled turtle
4139 PWMP *qantipa type of freshwater turtle
Note: Also Saisiyat kaesipaʔ ‘turtle’, Pazeh sipaʔ ‘turtle shell’, Tsou acipa, Bunun qasipa ‘turtle’. Although the comparison of Kapampangan antipa is straightforward, the inclusion of most phonetically similar Formosan forms in this set is problematic. PAn *C normally became Bunun /t/, and is reflected as /s/ only exceptionally (e.g. *CebuS > sibus ‘sugarcane’). Both Saisiyat /s/ and Pazeh /s/ can reflect *C, but Saisiyat kaesipaʔ shows an unexpected initial consonant, and Pazeh sipaʔ shows unexplained loss of the first syllable. Moreover, as noted by Tsuchida (1976:291) the expected Tsou reflex is **cipo.
It thus appears likely that most of the Formosan forms have been borrowed, presumably from some other Formosan source which either no longer exists, or which is yet to be identified. Both this observation and the glosses in languages such as Pazeh and Kapampangan make it more likely that PAn *qaCipa and PMP *qantipa referred to the ocean-dwelling hawksbill turtle, which is prized for its widely-traded shell, than to the economically unimportant land tortoise. If so, *qaCipa was replaced by *keRa/keRa(nŋ) in PCEMP.
33484 *qadaŋ to block, obstruct a path; ambush 12205 PWMP *qadaŋ to block, obstruct a path; ambush [doublet: *qalaŋ]
30177 6975 6976 POC *qarop front side; belly (of an animal?)
Note: Also Tongan Ɂalo ‘(of a fish) lower part, belly; also regal for kete, abdomen, stomach’, Niue alo-alo ‘the undersurfaced of anything’ alo-alo hui ‘sole of the foot’, alo-alo lima ‘palm of the hand’, faka-alo ‘cover the ceiling of a house; put the finishing layer on something; put the lining in a garment’.
Mills (1975:615) posits Proto-South Sulawesi *arɨ[p?] ‘chest, belly (i.e. front of the body)’. As he points out, this item may be equivalent to Dempwolff's *qadep ‘front’. An earlier version of this comparison proposed POc *qalo, but this cannot regularly be derived from PMP *qadep, and the improvements in the present set are indebted to the analysis of Osmond and Ross (2016:115).
27561 4147 Note: Given the similar deictic *idi ‘that, there’ (Blust 1980) and the morphological parallel *qani, *ini ‘this, here’, it appears very likely that at some stage in the history of the Austronesian languages this form was analyzable into a generic marker of location *qa and a locative specifier *di.
27560 *qadipen slave 4146 PPh *qadipen slave [doublet: *qudipen]
30250 *qadiS hawk sp. (harrier?) 7125 PAN *qadiS hawk sp. (harrier?)
Note: Also Kavalan Rzis ‘crested goshawk’. This term clearly referred to some type of hawk, but the exact referent remains uncertain. PAn *kuaw may also have designated a kind of hawk, so it is very likely that lexical distinctions existed for at least two types of hawk in PAn. Unlike the description given for Paiwan qaḍis, most harriers are small to middle-sized birds of prey, which would fit the description of Saisiyat ʔæris, although no further information is given about its meaning.
24784 *qait copulate; copulation, sexual intercourse 81 POC *qait copulate; copulation, sexual intercourse
Note: Also Iban ait ‘desire, long for, crave, covet’, Lou aIt (< *aetV) ‘copulate, have sexual intercourse’, Gedaged yait ‘fornication’. Ross and Osmond (2016:216-217) propose deriving POc *qait from PMP *ayut, but the etymological connections remain to be firmly established.
27562 *qajaw day 4148 PAN *qajaw day [doublet: *qalejaw]
4149 POC *qaco day [doublet: *qalo₁]
4150 4151 PAN *q<um>ajaw to shine, of the sun
Note: Also Puyuma (Tamalakaw) kadaw ‘sun’, kuR-ka-a-kadaw ‘sun oneself’, Molima ʔasu ‘sun’.
27563 *qajeŋ charcoal 4152 PMP *qajeŋ charcoal
4153 PMP *qajeŋ i batu coal, anthracite
Note: Also Ngaju Dayak aliŋ ‘remains of a cremated corpse’, Iban araŋ ‘charcoal’, Malay araŋ ‘calcined matter; charcoal; soot; coal’, Madurese areŋ ‘charcoal’, Sasak areŋ-areŋ ‘charcoal’, Manggarai haseŋ, Ngadha aro ‘charcoal, powder’, Rotinese kadek ‘soot, sooty’, Lamaholot arén ‘charcoal’, Paulohi arane ‘charcoal’.
Dempwolff (1934-38) included Tagalog aliŋ-asaw (with arbitary morpheme boundary) ‘effusion or emanation of an offensive odor’. However, to date no sure reflex of *qajeŋ has been found in any Philippine language. This item referred to cold charcoal in contrast to *baRa ‘ember’, and in at least two widely separated WMP languages (Kelabit and Bare'e) designated the coals used in blacksmithing.
33896 *qajiS boundary 12722 PAN *qajiS boundary
Note: This comparison was first noted in print by Tsuchida (1976:161-62).
27564 4154 4155 Note: This word is fairly well attested in the 30876 *qalaŋ obstruct, lie across or athwart 8701 PWMP *qalaŋ obstruct, lie across or athwart
33409 *qalat kind of large basket or fish weir held in the hand 12097 PWMP *qalat kind of large basket or fish weir held in the hand
27565 *qaleb knee 4156 PAN *qaleb knee [doublet: *eleb]
Note: Also Dohoi karop, Murung kalop. PAn *tuSud, PMP *tuhud almost certainly meant ‘knee’, the latter probably in conjunction with *qulu ‘head’ (= *qulu thud ‘head of knee’). The meaning of *qaleb thus remains problematic.
27566 *qalejaw day 4157 PMP *qalejaw day [doublet: *qajaw]
4158 PWMP *maŋ-qalejaw (gloss uncertain)
4159 PPh *ka-qalejaw-an (gloss uncertain)
4160 PWMP *paŋ-qalejaw-an (gloss uncertain)
4161 PPh *qalejaw-an place in the sun
4162 PMP *qalejaw-qalejaw daily, every day
Note: Also Kiput araw ‘day’, Melanau (Mukah) law ‘day’, Komodo ro ‘sun; day’, Watubela kolo ‘sun’, Rotuman asa ‘sun’.
27567 4163 12529 27568 4164 PWMP *qalesem sourness, acidity [doublet: *qaRsem]
4165 PWMP *ma-qalesem sour
4166 PWMP *qalesem qalesem small sour plant with clover-like leaves
Note: Also Isneg lassám ‘vinegar’, Kalamian Tagbanwa ma-kaklem ‘sour’, Kowiai/Koiwai asam jawa ‘tamarind’. Dempwolff (1934-38) reconstructed *asem, and many contemporary languages appear to reflect a disyllable. We might, therefore, posit three variants: *qalesem, *qaRsem and *qasem. Apart from its disturbing proliferation of variants there is a fundamental phonological problem with this interpretation: *qalesem and *qaRsem clearly are distinct, but the evidence for *qasem is generally compatible with *qalesem. On the assumption that the Tagalog and Maranao forms show cluster reduction (with Maranao optionally reducing the cluster or breaking it up by metathesis), no Philippine language supports *qasem. Moreover, as noted in Blust (1982) there is persuasive evidence that Malay syncopated vowels in the environment VC-CV, with reduction of a resulting cluster of two obstruents.
Cognates of the material cited in Blust (1982) suggest that much the same type of change took place in many of the languages of western Indonesia. Evidence for *qalesem is not confined to the languages of the 31867 *qali- prefix for words with a sensitive reference to the spirit world (cf. 10074 PAN *qali- prefix for words with a sensitive reference to the spirit world (cf. Note: For further details on the analysis and meaning of this affix and its variants see Blust (2001).
33580 *qaliaw be startled or frightened, as by violent action 12318 PPh *qaliaw be startled or frightened, as by violent action
33305 *qali-baŋbaŋ kind of tree with leaves shaped like butterflies 11840 PWMP *qali-baŋbaŋ kind of tree with leaves shaped like butterflies
Note: This presumably is the same morpheme as *qali-baŋbaŋ ‘butterfly, moth’, and hence is assumed to contain the *qali/kali- prefix marking referents that have a sensitive relationship to the spirit world.
33801 *qalibun a plant with medicinal value, probably Blumea spp. 12593 PPh *qalibun a plant with medicinal value, probably Blumea spp.
33802 *qalibuŋbuŋ to encircle, surround something 12594 PPh *qalibuŋbuŋ to encircle, surround something
Note: This word is assumed to contain the *qali/kali- prefix.
27569 4167 32003 *qalima hand 10227 PAN *qalima hand
Note: The resemblance of this form to *lima ‘five’ is unmistakeable, but there is no known basis for an analysis of *qalima into two morphemes, and it is consequently best to treat it as an independent lexical entry.
27570 4168 PMP *qali-maŋaw mangrove crab [doublet: *qali-maŋu]
7788 Note: Also Aua arimao, Mendak kalimbaŋ ‘mangrove crab’, Gitua alimaŋa ‘mud crab’, Dobuan ʔalimana, kalimana ‘crab’.
27571 4169 PMP *qali-maŋu mangrove crab [doublet: *qali-maŋaw]
Note: Also Kambera kalimau ‘lobster, crayfish’, Soboyo kamaŋu ‘crab’, Yapese qamaaŋ ‘mangrove crab’ (possibly a loan from Palauan). Penchal ɨ reflects penultimate *a only where a lost final vowel was high. Palauan chemáŋ, which can be assigned to either set, confirms *q-.
27572 *qali-meqes invisible 4170 PWMP *qali-meqes invisible
Note: Also Tongan manimo ‘surreptitious, secret, underhand, not above-board, not done openly and honestly’, Samoan nimo ‘vanish, disappear, slip one's memory’, Rennellese nimo ‘forget, vanish, disappear’. Dempwolff (1934-38) included the Tongan and Samoan forms in his comparison, but all Polynesian evidence indicates *n rather than *l. Dyen (1953:14, and fn. 55) included the Tongan word on the grounds that the change of *l to /n/ was a conditioned change (*l regularly became n when preceding a syllable that contained a nasal). However, it is inconsistent to cite Tongan, but not the obvious cognates in other Polynesian languages, in which the assimilation in question did not take place.
Finally, Dyen (1953:14) posits a quadrisyllable *alimees to account for Cebuano alimoos, a form quoted from Encarnación (1885). This form does not appear in any more recent dictionary of Cebuano or any other Bisayan languages that I have been able to consult. Whatever its status in Bisayan, Dyen's reconstruction is problematic in at least two respects: 1) no quadrisyllabic morphemes have been reconstructed for earlier stages in Austronesian, and all quadrisyllabic words appear to contain the *qali/kali- prefix, an analysis which I adopt here, 2) no unambiguous sequences of like vowels have been reconstructed, and for this reason I interpret the phonetic glottal stop in the 33744 *(q)alipa a nut tree, Canarium sp. 12500 POC *(q)alipa a nut tree, Canarium sp.
Note: Because of their economic importance in many traditional Melanesian societies canarium nuts are lexically distinguished based on various characteristics. In Kuruti, spoken on Manus island in the Admiralty group, for example, oŋlow is a canarium nut (Tok Pisin galip) with three sections inside, eŋey also has three interior sections, but is smaller and more elongated than oŋlow, and pudoy is a canarium nut with one section inside. Other languages, as Kele in Manus, and Mussau in the St. Matthias archipelago also make a three-way lexical distinction, based in part on size. Ross (2008:312ff) thus appears to be justified in positing more than one POc term for canarium nut.
27574 *qali-peqip scapula 4172 PWMP *qali-peqip scapula
Note: Also Kayan laʔip ‘shoulder’, Angkola-Mandailing Batak halipkip ‘scapula’, Makassarese palippiʔ ‘rump (of animals)’. Kelabit liʔip is assumed to reflect earlier *lipʔip, with cluster reduction.
27575 *qali-petpet firefly 4173 PMP *qali-petpet firefly [doublet: *kalim-petpet, *salim-petpet]
10177 POC *qali-popot firefly
Note: Also Bikol anínipót, Cebuano aniniput, Nabay dialect of Murut (Lowland) aninipot, Murut (Timugon) andidipot ‘firefly’, all reflecting the simple root *pet. The Oceanic members of this comparison were supplied by Osmond (2011:399).
32730 *qali-pugpug whirlwind 11163 PPh *qali-pugpug whirlwind
Note: Because this is an *qali/kali- word (Blust 2001:38-39) many other languages have quadrisyllabic forms that begin with a similar sequence of two syllables, but only the ones cited here form a cognate set.
27576 4174 8890 Note: Also Saisiyat kaʔalipozaʔan ‘hair whorl’. Paiwan qułipupuduan ‘crown of head (where hair whorls)’ together with some Philippine forms suggests a stem *-pupuju.
33399 *qali-puRut whirlwind, dust devil 12047 PPh *qali-puRut whirlwind, dust devil
33197 *qali-puspus whirlwind 11699 PAN *qali-puspus whirlwind [doublet: *qali-pugpug]
12440 PMP *qali-puspus whirlwind; hair whorl
27577 4175 4176 PMP *qaliR-an place where water flows
Note: With root *-liR ‘flow’.
32666 *qalís to change place or activity 11066 PPh *qalís to change place or activity
11067 PPh *qalis-an to change place or activity
30054 6755 Note: Also Tiruray liwet ‘go around, but close by, something or someone; to speak in an indirect, metaphorical, or euphemistic way’, ge-liwet ‘all around’, Maranao liwat ‘forget, forgetfulness, vanish’. The relationship between *liwed ‘scatter to and fro’ and *qaliwat ‘pass by or near’ is unclear. It is possible that all of this material belongs to a single cognate set, but it has so far proved impossible to unite them without recognizing irregularities in a number of languages.
30135 *qalo₁ sun 6877 POC *qalo₁ sun [doublet: *qaco]
Note: Also Mono-Alu healo ‘sun’. Osmond (2003) relates all of these forms to PMP *qalejaw, POc *qaco ‘sun’. Most if not all Admiralty forms do appear to be compatible with POc *qaco, but this is not true of similar forms in Vanuatu and Micronesia, forcing the reconstruction of a doublet with medial *l. *qalo (and *qaco) probably meant ‘day/sun’, with *mata ni qalo or *mata ni qaco more specifically indicating the sun.
30136 *qalo₂ tree with wood used to make fireplows 6878 POC *qalo₂ tree with wood used to make fireplows
27583 4189 PMP *qalu a fish: barracuda sp.
27580 *qalun long rolling wave, swell, billow 4179 PMP *qalun long rolling wave, swell, billow
4180 4181 PWMP *maŋ-qalun to billow, swell (of waves at sea)
4182 PWMP *qalun qalun wave-like, wavy
Note: Also Tongan ŋalu ‘wave (when rolling in), breaker or surf’, Samoan ŋalu ‘wave, breaker; (of the sea) be rough’, Rennellese ŋagu ‘wave, form waves’, Maori ŋaru ‘wave of the sea’, Hawaiian nalu ‘wave, surf; full of waves; to form waves; wavy, as wood grain’. This form can be securely reconstructed only for PWMP, since the assignment to PMP depends entirely on the proposed cognation of Tubetube yalu. However, at the PWMP level *qalun evidently referred to long rolling waves at sea, or to ripples on the surface of water, in contrast to breakers or surf (PAn *Nabek, PMP, PWMP *nabek), and to tidal waves or high tide (PMP *Ruab).
27579 *qalunan wooden headrest, pillow 4178 PMP *qalunan wooden headrest, pillow
Note: Also Puyuma saLunan ‘pillow (ritual term)’, Tagalog únan ‘pillow’. Distinct from *quluŋaq. Mongondow oulunan may show contamination with ulu ‘head’.
33945 *qalupaR persimmon 12783 PAN *qalupaR persimmon
Note: This term is rather sparsely attested, with all Philippine forms collected to date coming from Madulid (2001). However, since it is trisyllabic, shows regular sound correspondences, and refers to a tree and its edible fruit in all languages, the probability of cognation appears relatively high. Although the referents in Taiwan and the Philippines are different, this is likely due to the indigenous presence of the persimmon in Taiwan, and its absence in the Philippines. Based on this hypothesis I assume that PAn *qalupaR meant ‘persimmon’, and that the term survived but was applied to a variety of different local fruits when Austronesian speakers reached the Philippines.
27581 *qaluR current, deep channel in the middle of a river 4183 PAN *qaluR₁ current, deep channel in the middle of a river
4184 PMP *qaluR₂ current, deep channel in the middle of a river
4185 PWMP *maŋ-qaluR (gloss uncertain)
Note: Also Pangasinan álog ‘stream, stream or river bed; acres, lowland field or farm’, ka-alog-án ‘wide tract of farmland’, Ngaju Dayak lalohan ‘place in a river which has the greatest depth’. Amis ʔalol ‘be carried away by water so that it is no longer seen’ is phonologically compatible with *qaluR, but is semantically a better match with *qañud. The resemblance between it and reflexes of *qaluR is perhaps best treated as a product of chance. In addition, Bimanese aru may be a borrowing of Malay (h)arus ‘current’, and Kei alur may be unrelated. If so, *qaluR can be assigned only to PWMP.
Dempwolff (1934-38) glossed his reconstruction of this form as ‘Gewässer’ (= ‘lake, pond, waters’). Several reflexes, however, suggest that the fundamental idea expressed by *qaluR was not that of flowing water (cf. *qaliR), but rather that of a channel through which water flowed (cf. Kalamian Tagbanwa ‘ditch’, Maranao ‘gorge, canyon’, Malagasy ‘fosse, ditch, precipice; bed of a river’, Iban ‘deep channel’, Malay (Johore) ‘main channel of river’). In a number of reflexes the notions of channel and flowing water which evidently formed an inseparable part of the original gloss have been dissociated, leaving this form free to refer to one or the other idea independently (Kelabit, Kenyah, Balinese, Bare'e, with reference to flowing water, Sundanese, Javanese, with reference to animal tracks through the jungle).
27582 *qalu-Sipan centipede 4186 PAN *qalu-Sipan centipede
4187 PMP *qalu-hipan centipede
4188 PCEMP *qalipan centipede
Note: Also Saisiyat (Taai) ʔalʸoŋæhipan ‘centipede’, Yami (Imorod) alilipwan ‘centipede’, Itbayaten allipwan ‘centipede’, Ivatis diːpowan ‘centipede’, Tagalog alupihan ‘centipede’, ulapihan ‘centipede’, ulahipan ‘centipede’, Bikol aluluypán ‘centipede’, ulaypán ‘centipede’, Cebuano ulahípan ‘centipede’, Cebuano ulahìpan sa baybáyun ‘sandworm, any of numerous annelids which burrow in the sand (they are used as bait)’, Mansaka ollaipan ‘centipede’, Maranao laiopan ‘centipede’, Tboli siyufun ‘centipede’, Gana nipal ‘centipede’, Miri ñifal ‘centipede’, Singhi Land Dayak ripapian ‘centipede’, Ma'anyan anilipan ‘centipede’, Katingan jalipan ‘centipede’, Delang soŋgilipan ‘centipede’, Ngaju Dayak halalipan ‘centipede’, Banjarese halilipan ‘centipede’, Malay lipan ‘centipede’, Minangkabau lilipan ‘centipede’, Tae' lalipan ‘centipede’, Buginese alipeŋ ‘centipede’, Buginese balipeŋ ‘centipede’, Li'o nipa fua ‘centipede’, Kambera kalipa ‘centipede’, Rotinese liʔak ‘kind of centipede that phosphoresces when it is rubbed’, Motu ahia ‘centipede’, Sa'a äluhe ‘centipede’.
Dempwolff (1934-38) reconstructed *lipan, but this reconstruction is inadequate in several respects. An etymon *qalipan is capable of explaining a larger number of forms, although this too fails to account for Kavalan Rusipan, various reflexes in the Philippines, Roglai (Northern) and Mentawai, all of which attest the presence of an additional syllable that contained *u. In recognition of these problems Hendon (1964: fn. 18) posited *ʔaluhipan ‘centipede’.
The bimorphemic analysis that I adopt for *qalu-Sipan is motivated by the following considerations: 1. there appear to be no unambiguous quadrisyllabic morphemes in PAn or PMP,
27584 *qamataq raw, eat something raw 4190 PMP *qamataq raw, eat something raw [doublet: *ataq, *hataq, *qetaq]
27585 *qambaR tasteless, insipid 4191 PMP *qambaR tasteless, insipid [doublet: *tabaR]
27586 *qambat ambush, block the way; obstacle, hindrance 4192 PMP *qambat ambush, block the way; obstacle, hindrance [doublet: *abaŋ₁]
Note: Also Toba Batak abot ‘hindrance, impediment, obstacle’.
27587 *qambawaŋ large mango: Mangifera odorata 4193 PWMP *qambawaŋ large mango: Mangifera odorata
Note: Also Malay bacaŋ, embacaŋ, macaŋ, membacaŋ ‘horse-mango: Mangifera foetida’, Toba Batak ambasaŋ ‘tree with edible fruit; a large kind of mango’, Makassarese taipa macaŋ ‘mango-tree: Mangifera indica’. I take Malay embacaŋ and macaŋ to be innovative forms of *qambawaŋ which were borrowed into Toba Batak and Makassarese respectively.
27588 *qambeŋ obstruct, block the way 4194 PWMP *qambeŋ obstruct, block the way [disjunct: *habeŋ]
Note: Also Manggarai ambaŋ ‘obstruct, impede’.
27589 *qambiday carry slung over the shoulder 4195 PPh *qambiday carry slung over the shoulder [disjunct: *qambijay]
Note: Also Ilokano abáday ‘carry something in a band slung over the shoulder’, Kalamian Tagbanwa kablay ‘carry something by suspending it from the shoulder diagonally’, Maranao abelai ‘hang over shoulder, sling across shoulder’, Maranao ambelai ‘put hand around shoulder’. The initial *q in this form is posited on the basis of the similar but non-corresponding Kalamian Tagbanwa form kablay.
27590 *qambijay carry slung over the shoulder 4196 PPh *qambijay carry slung over the shoulder [disjunct: *qambiday]
27591 *qambuR strew, scatter, sprinkle 4197 PWMP *qambuR strew, scatter, sprinkle
Note: Also Miri amur ‘to sow, scatter seeds’, Balinese ambur ‘spread about, scatter’, Bare'e ámbur-i ‘strew, scatter seed’.
27592 4198 4199 4200 4201 PPh *qamihan-an north; rainy season
Note: Reflexes of PAn *qamiS are confined to languages which lie north of the Equator. Since no system of terms for the cardinal directions can be reconstructed for any early Austronesian proto-language, and since terms for the west and east monsoons were important from at least PMP times, it appears most likely that PAn *qamiS meant ‘north wind’. Under this hypothesis PAn *qamiS-an (lit. ‘place of the north wind’) would have meant ‘north’ or ‘winter’. In PMP the morpheme boundary separating *qamiS from the locative suffix was lost, yielding a new trisyllabic base *qamihan, which took over the original meaning of *qamiS ‘north wind’. History then repeated itself, and the locative suffix *-an was added to the new and longer PMP base to yield *qamihan-an (lit. ‘place of the north wind’) now meaning ‘north; rainy season’, since speakers of PMP had at this point advanced too far south for the recognition of temperate seasonality to any longer have a meaning.
27595 *qanahaw sugar palm: Arenga spp. 4204 PMP *qanahaw sugar palm: Arenga spp.
Note: Although PWMP *qanahaw clearly designated some subset of palm trees, the membership of this set remains unclear. Philippine witnesses are unanimous in indicating the fan palm (genus Livistona), whereas the languages of 27608 4232 PAN *qani₁ proximal deictic: this
Note: See note to *qadi. The Kayan (Uma Juman) deictics in general have a secondary final h of unknown provenance.
27596 *qanibuŋ fruit-bearing bush or tree 4205 PAN *qanibuŋ fruit-bearing bush or tree
4206 PMP *qanibuŋ a palm, probably Oncosperma sp.
Note: Also Malagasy anívo ‘a species of palm (Prov.)’, Toba Batak libuŋ ‘kind of wild coconut palm which grows in the forest’. Although the referent of PAn *qanibuŋ remains indeterminate, it is clear that PMP *qanibuŋ was used for one or more types of palms that were evidently useful in making flooring (reflexes in Cebuano, Iban, Karo Batak, and perhaps Malagasy). Throughout the northern and 27599 4219 PWMP *q<aR>anih to harvest [doublet: *qaniS]
27600 4220 PMP *qanilaw a tree; Grewia spp.
Note: Also Bontok alinʔew ‘tall tree with good bast fiber: Croton caudatus Geisel’, Kankanaey alinʔéw ‘small tiliaceous tree with white flowers: Grewia setacea Merr.’.
27601 *qaninaw shadow, indistinct image 4221 PPh *qaninaw shadow, indistinct image [doublet: *qaninu, etc.]
27602 *qaninuŋ shadow 4222 PWMP *qaninuŋ shadow [doublet: *qaninu]
Note: Also Mongondow oliuŋ ‘shadow, that is, a shadowed or shaded place’. Chamorro normally reflects *u in a closed syllable as o, but sometimes shows a front vowel instead, as in *ijuŋ > gwiʔeŋ ‘nose’ or *li(n)duŋ > liheŋ ‘sheltered’.
27604 *qani-Ruan a small bee: Apis indica 4224 PMP *qani-Ruan a small bee: Apis indica [doublet: *qari-ñuan]
Note: Also Simalur aniwan ‘wild bee (< *qani-Ruan, with irregular *R > Ø (?)), Malay (Jakarta) ñaruan ‘bee or hornet’, Sasak keñeruh, keñeruh-an ‘bee’. It would be attractive to unite *qani-Ruan and *qari-ñuan under a single reconstruction. Since reflexes of (a) in our data are both more common and more widely attested (being found in WMP and CMP languages), *qani-Ruan is perhaps the preferred shape of such an invariant prototype. But under this interpretation we must recognize at least three independent metatheses (Ilokano, the Bornean forms, Toba Batak), of which the second followed the sporadic palatalization of *n before i. An invariant prototype *qari-ñuan not only exacerbates this problem, but cannot account for the stem-initial g of various Philippine reflexes. This difficulty might be alleviated by positing *qaRi-ñuan, but among other obstacles to such an interpretation independent evidence for a prefix *qaRi- is unknown. On balance, then, the reconstruction of doublets with complementary affixation, though not entirely problem-free, appears preferable to an invariant prototype. Sundanese ñiruan could be a metathesis of *qari-ñuan.
27605 4225 PAN *qaniS harvest; to harvest [doublet: *aRani]
4226 PMP *qanih harvest; to harvest [doublet: *q 4227 PAN *maR-qani harvest; to harvest
4228 PWMP *qanih-an the harvest, what is harvested
4229 PPh *qanih-en to harvest, reap
Note: Blust (1989:123) reconstructed PAn *qanih, but a stronger argument can be made that the final consonant (lost in absolute final position in all languages, and retained only before a suffix in some Central Philippine reflexes) was *S. The palatal nasal in Balinese añi conflicts with Old Javanese hani, Javanese ani ani, and Malay ani ani (the latter probably a Javanese loan), and is treated here as due to secondary palatalization. Blust (1989) treated reflexes of *qaRani as affixed forms of the present reconstruction (*q-aR-anih), but parallels for infixation with *-aR- (in contrast to *-ar-) are difficult to find. For this reason I have returned to a modified form of an earlier solution (Blust 1970) in which *qaniS and *aRani (ambiguous for *(q)aRani(S)) are treated as doublets.
27613 *qanta having an unpleasant taste 4238 PWMP *qanta having an unpleasant taste
Note: Aklanon aŋtá(h), antá(h) ‘burned, smelling overcooked’ probably is distinct.
27610 *qantak stamp, put one's foot down 4235 PWMP *qantak stamp, put one's foot down
27611 4236 Note: Also Javanese ancas ‘take a shortcut’, Rembong antat ‘take a shortcut’. With root *-tas ‘cut through, sever; rip’.
27612 *qantatadu large stinging green caterpillar 4237 PWMP *qantatadu large stinging green caterpillar [doublet: *katadu] [disjunct: *hantatadu]
Note: Also Bontok attatádo ‘the larva of the Chrysomelid beetle’, Ilokano antatáteg ‘kind of white larva’, Mansaka antataroʔ ‘caterpillar’, Malay ulat centadu, ulat sentadu, Minangkabau sintadu, tintadu, Minangkabau (Negri Sembilan) mentadu ‘large green hairy caterpillar, believed by Malays to develop into a squirrel’, Mongondow tantaduʔ, tontaduʔ ‘large caterpillar that is found especially on the leaves of the ubi limituʔ (kind of tuber)’. Since the first two syllables of *antatadu do not appear to be a variant of the *qali/kali- prefix which often is found on the names of ‘creepy-crawly’ life-forms, this item is one of the rare reconstructed quadrisyllables that cannot be analyzed into two morphemes. While *qulej functioned as a generic term for the larvae of flies, butterflies and moths, *antatadu and its variants *hantatadu and *katadu evidently referred to a prominent green, probably stinging caterpillar commonly found on the leaves of tubers such as taro.
27614 4239 Note: Also Malay hentam ‘slamming; slapping; bumping against’.
27615 *qantuk nod the head in drowsiness 4240 PWMP *qantuk nod the head in drowsiness [disjunct: *kantuk]
Note: Also Pangasinan toék ‘bow the head’, Old Javanese antuk ‘be or become sleepy’, Javanese aṇṭuk ‘nod the head (again and again)’. Possibly with root *-tuk₁ ‘bend, bow, curve’.
27618 *qanunu shadow 4244 PMP *qanunu shadow [doublet: *qaninu, etc.]
4245 POC *qanunu shadow; reflection; soul [doublet: *qaninu, etc.]
Note: Also Duke of York nono ‘to shade, shadow’, Meramera lunu ‘shadow’, Mota niniai ‘shadow, reflection’, Southeast Ambrym nini ‘spirit, soul, ghost, shadow, image, reflection’.
24849 252 Note: Also Balinese andus ‘smoke’, Komodo nuh ‘smoke’, Manggarai nus ‘smoke’, Ngadha nu ‘smoke, cloud, dust cloud; to smoke, whirl upward; turbid, clouded over’.
30226 *qanus₁ a plant: Begonia aptera (Hay) 7084 PAN *qanus₁ a plant: Begonia aptera (Hay)
Note: Also Kavalan ʔenus ‘a plant: Begonia aptera’. This comparison was noted by Li (1994).
32133 *qanus₂ spittle; to spit (intr.) 10386 POC *qanus₂ spittle; to spit (intr.) [doublet: *kanisu, *kanus]
10387 Note: Also Nggela aŋusu ‘to spit’, Kwaio ŋisu ‘saliva, spittle, gall’, ŋisu-a ‘to spit on’, Lau ŋisu spittle; to spit’, ŋisu-fi ‘to spit upon’, Arosi ŋisu to spit’, ŋisu-hi ‘spit on’. This reconstruction was first proposed by Milke (1968), who also cited several forms now included under the doublet *kanisu, but ignored the massive amounts of irregularity that must be accepted in order to maintain a single proto-form *qanusi. The POc base apparently was a trisyllabic verb ending with *–i, which was reinterpreted in Proto-Polynesian as containing the ‘close transitive’ suffix –i, thereby giving rise to an innovative stem ʔanu.
30670 *qanusi to spit at (as an insult?) 8207 POC *qanusi to spit at (as an insult?) [doublet: *kanisu]
Note: Also Nggela aŋusu ‘to spit’, Kwaio ŋisu ‘saliva, spittle, gall’, ŋisu-a ‘to spit on’, Lau ŋisu spittle; to spit’, ŋisu-fi ‘to spit upon’, Arosi ŋisu to spit’, ŋisu-hi ‘spit on’. This reconstruction was first proposed by Milke (1968), who also cited several forms now included under the doublet *kanisu, but ignored the massive amounts of irregularity that must be accepted in order to maintain a single proto-form *qanusi. The POc base apparently was a trisyllabic verb ending with *–i, which was reinterpreted in Proto-Polynesian as containing the ‘close transitive’ suffix –i, thereby giving rise to an innovative stem ʔanu.
30251 7126 Note: Because PAn *pajiS ‘enemy’ can be reconstructed on the basis of Formosan-only data, and none of the glosses in published sources mention ‘stranger’, I assume that *qaNa and *pajiS differed in meaning, the former meaning essentially ‘stranger, someone not from our group’, and the latter ‘enemy’. Given the insecure conditions in which tribal societies often lived it is hardly surprising that the notion ‘stranger’ would easily include that of ‘enemy’, and the delicate ambivalence between guest and enemy (the positive reception of the outsider vs. the negative reception of the outsider) that is so penetratingly discussed in the Indo-European context by Benveniste (1973:71-83) is also reflected in various forms of this term, which include ‘enemy’, ‘stranger’, ‘guest’ and ‘one’s own villagers’.
30310 7258 PAN *qaNeb door
11114 11115 11116 11117 PMP *qaneb-an (gloss uncertain)
Note: Also Yami paneb ‘door’, Casiguran Dumagat gánəb ‘door; close a door’. With root *-Neb ‘door’.
27607 4231 PAN *qaNi weaving spindle [disjunct: *hanay, *hanʔey 'arrange the warp on the loom']
27606 *qaNi- variant of the *qali/kali- prefix 4230 PAN *qaNi- variant of the *qali/kali- prefix
27598 *qaNiC animal skin, hide, leather 4212 PAN *qaNiC animal skin, hide, leather
4213 PMP *qanit animal skin, hide, leather
4214 PAN *q<um>aNiC to skin an animal
4215 PMP *q<um>anit to skin an animal
4216 PWMP *qanit-an to skin an animal
Note: Also Manobo (Western Bukidnon) anis ‘to skin an animal’. Blust (1970) reconstructed *(q)añiC ‘skin, hide’, but the medial nasal appeared to conflict with Formosan reflexes. Evidence from Kayan, Kenyah, Bukat, and perhaps Iban, all of which preserve the *n/ñ distinction, also contradicts the reconstruction of a palatal nasal, and it is now clear that the palatal nasal of Land Dayak forms such as Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong) is best treated as a product of secondary assimilation. Animal, plant, and human integuments were represented in PAn by two distinct terms. PAn *qaNiC referred to animal skin (both on the animal, and removed), as opposed to *kuliC ‘skin (of humans)’. PAn *q-um-aNiC, and perhaps some other affixed forms, referred to the skinning of animals, of which deer are perhaps most frequently mentioned in the sample sentences of dictionary entries.
27597 *qaNiCu ghost, spirit of the dead; owl 4207 PAN *qaNiCu ghost, spirit of the dead; owl
4208 PMP *qanitu ghost, ancestral spirit; nature spirit; corpse; owl; various plants
4209 PPh *qanitu-an (gloss uncertain)
4210 PMP *maŋ-qanitu make offering to spirits (?)
4211 PWMP *maR-qanitu communicate with spirits (?)
Note: Also Proto-Atayalic *ʔaliutux ‘ghost’. It is evident that *qaNiCu represented an important concept in traditional Austronesian-speaking societies. The basic notion appears to be that of ‘ghost, spirit of the dead’, as opposed to ‘soul, spirit of the living’ (*sumaŋed, q.v.). In some WMP and OC languages (as Karo Batak and Cheke Holo) and in many CMP languages, reflexes of *qaNiCu also refer to nature spirits, probably through the normal associative links of animism (ghost > ancestral spirit > nature spirit). The reference to ‘owl’ in Puyuma, Malay, and Sundanese suggests that this bird has long been regarded as a spectral manifestation in the Austronesian-speaking world, while the scattered references to plants (Itbayaten, Malay, Buginese, Ngadha) are perhaps best illuminated by Wilkinson's (1959) gloss for Malay hantu.
27609 *qaNiŋu shadow, reflection 4233 PAN *qaNiŋu 'shadow, reflection
4234 PMP *qaninu shadow, reflection
Note: Also Paiwan qailʸuŋan ‘glass, mirror; reflection, shadow’, Isneg aniníwiŋ ‘shadow, reflection. A child who looks at its shadow in the evening, becomes very thin’, Ilokano aniníwan ‘shade, shadow, image’, Atta (Pamplona) alinu ‘shadow’, Toba Batak halinu ‘shadow; reflection’, Manggarai néneŋ ‘shadow, indistinct outline; invisible’, Paulohi nini ‘shadow’. Based on Tagalog aníno ‘shadow; reflection’, Toba Batak halinu ‘shadow; reflection’ Dempwolff (1934-38) reconstructed *ali[n]u ‘shade, shadow, spirit’, but his comparison shows irregularities in both languages, and an etymon with this shape cannot be justified by any known evidence.
The problem that Dempwolff faced in dealing with this comparison was created by 1. a limited choice of languages from which to select cognates, and 2. the extreme variability of seemingly related forms meaning ‘shadow; reflection’, and often by extension ‘soul, spirit of a living being’ (for the identification of the soul with the shadow or reflection as a culture universal cf. Tylor (1958 [1871]:2:14ff). Since Formosan reflexes of *qaNiŋu and MP reflexes of *qaninu are complementary in terms of hierarchically ordered subgroups I have assumed that PMP *qaninu is a lineal continuation of PAn *qaniŋu with irregular change of the second nasal. Similarly, it would be possible to interpret POc *qanunu ‘shadow; reflection; soul’ as an irregularly altered form of PMP (and PCEMP) *qaninu, except that Palauan lechúl ‘scar; shadow’ appears to reflect *qanunu (with metathesis of the first two consonants), thus requiring the coexistence of PMP *qaninu and *qanunu as doublets.
27616 *qaNuaŋ large ruminant species: carabao, water buffalo (?) 4241 PAN *qaNuaŋ large ruminant species: carabao, water buffalo (?) [doublet: *qiNuaŋ]
4242 PMP *qanuaŋ large ruminant species: carabao, water buffalo (?)
Note: Many reflexes of *qaNuaŋ have lost the first syllable with no apparent conditioning. In languages of the The first of these choices is in some ways the least problematic, although 1) it cannot be justified by reflexes in both Formosan and WMP languages, and 2) PWMP *u(R)sa(h) must have meant ‘deer, Cervus spp.’, leaving PWMP *qanuaŋ with what presumably was some other meaning. If PAn *qaNuaŋ and PWMP *qanuaŋ had the same referent, then (and there is no reason to believe otherwise), it apparently was not ‘Cervus spp.’. It is noteworthy that reflexes of *qaNuaŋ refer to unique species of wild buffalo or antelope both in Mindoro (Bubalus mindorensis), and in Sulawesi (Anoa depressicornis). Neither referent can be original, however, since the species in question are geographically limited, and neither Mindoro nor Sulawesi is a likely Austronesian homeland. This leaves the carabao as a plausible referent of PAn *qaNuaŋ, with subsequent transfer of the term to various wild varieties of buffalo or buffalo-like animals. Since terms related to Malay kerbau, Tagalog kalabáw ‘carabao’ are widespread in mainland Southeast Asia, Indonesia and the Philippines, and appear to be loanwords both in Austronesian and in What remains puzzling in all of this is the implication that the carabao was known to speakers of PAn (as *qaNuaŋ), and that the animal was preserved in Taiwan and the northern Philippines, but lost in areas further to the south. Where the carabao was lost the old name was reapplied to various wild bovids. Bellwood (1997 [1985]:219-22) notes that the Lower Yangtze cultures exemplified by, for example, the 7,000-year-old site of Hemudu in the northeastern portion of modern Zhejiang province, show several archaeological traits which make them prime candidates for a pre-PAn phase of the later Austronesian cultural expansion. Both the domestic pig and water buffalo were present in Lower Yangtze sites by 5,000 B.C., and it is possible that the water buffalo was transported to Taiwan (although no archaeological confirmation for either pig or water buffalo is yet available for the earliest agricultural levels in Taiwan). If so, it would make the apparent loss of the water buffalo at a later date further to the south even more puzzling.
27617 *qaNuNaŋ a tree: Cordia dichotoma 4243 PAN *qaNuNaŋ a tree: Cordia dichotoma
Note: Also Pazeh anuna ‘plant sp.: Cordia myxa’, Ilokano anónaŋ ‘custard apple: Annona reticulata’, Yakan lunaŋ ‘a tree: Cordia dichotoma’, Bare'e anona ‘slime on the skin of fish’. Tsuchida (1976:139) reconstructs ‘PHes’ *(qₐu-)NuNaŋ, basing the first vowel on unambiguous reflexes in Kanakanabu and the Mantauran dialect of Rukai. However, all WMP reflexes which preserve the penultimate vowel point instead to *a. Provisionally I assume that the Formosan reflexes with prepenultimate u are products of assimilation to the penultimate vowel. This tree evidently was valued for the viscous sap of its fruit.
27619 4247 4248 PAN *q<um>aNup to hunt, go hunting
4249 PAN *qaNup-an hunting ground, hunting territory
4250 PMP *qanup-an hunting ground, hunting territory
4251 PAN *qaNup-en what is hunted, wild game
4252 PMP *qanup-en what is hunted, wild game
4253 4254 Note: Also Ngaju Dayak andop ‘what is hunted; pursue the hunt’, m-andop ‘to hunt (quadrupeds, birds, monkeys)’. The relationship between *-um and *maŋ- in this cognate set is of some interest. Although only the former can be reconstructed for PAn, both active verb affixes were present in PMP. However, in PMP *qanup the use of *-um- appears to have been largely or entirely supplanted by *maŋ- for the active verb. Although the PAn and PMP words can be reconstructed only in the meaning ‘to hunt wild game’, in a number of Philippine languages reflexes of *qaNup mean both ‘to hunt’ and ‘hunting dog’.
27710 *qañud drift on a current, carried away by flowing water 4412 PAN *qañud drift on a current, carried away by flowing water
4413 PPh *i-qañud adrift
4414 PMP *ma-qañud adrift
4415 4416 4417 PPh *paŋ-añud (gloss uncertain)
4418 PWMP *q<um>añud move on a current
4419 PPh *qañud-en adrift
4420 POC *mañur mañur float, be adrift
Note: Also Puyuma (Tamalakaw) m-u-a-Hanun ‘to flow (of water in a small quantity)’, Ifugaw (Batad) annúy ‘float downstream, as of a person in play, or inanimate objects’, Banggai ma-anus ‘drift on a current’, maŋ-anus ‘set adrift on a current’. On the basis of apparent irregularities in some Formosan reflexes Tsuchida (1976:200-201) reconstructs a final palatal in this form, hence *qañu(zZ). However, the reconstruction of final *z or *Z is unparalleled, and runs counter to well-established constraints on the occurrence of final palatals other than *j (which may have been a palatalized velar rather than a true palatal) in PAn, PMP and PWMP morphemes generally. The discovery of Oceanic reflexes which preserve the final consonant could in principle resolve this issue: if such forms indicate POc *ma-qañus Tsuchida would be vindicated; if instead they point to POc *ma-qañur his proposal would be contradicted. To date no such Oceanic reflexes have been found. Pending some other explanation for the problems which Tsuchida noted, then, I follow Dempwolff (1934-38) in positing *-d.
27695 *qaŋab gape, open the mouth wide 4396 PMP *qaŋab gape, open the mouth wide [disjunct: *qaŋap]
27696 *qaŋap gape, open the mouth wide 4397 PMP *qaŋap gape, open the mouth wide
Note: Also Ngaju Dayak babaŋap ‘wide, large (used only of the opening of large pots and cannons)’, Ngaju Dayak raraŋap ‘gape wide (of the throats of crocodiles, pigs, large fish, or snakes)’, Banggai aŋat ‘open wide, as the mouth’, Lau āŋa ‘open the mouth wide’, Lau āŋa fafa ‘gape’. With root *-ŋap ‘open, of the mouth
27697 *qaŋeliC stench of burning substances 4398 PAN *qaŋeliC stench of burning substances
Note: Also Bontok aŋílit ‘have an unpleasant smell, of burning hair or feathers’, Kankanaey aŋílit ‘to smell of burning (when burning hair, etc.)’, Ifugaw aŋilít ‘odor produced by singeing the hair of a pig, or the unplucked feathers of a chicken after it has been killed in a sacrificial performance’. This item may be used to illustrate the striking word family of ‘stench’ words which contain the phonemic sequence *qaŋe-. Reconstructed members include PAn *qaŋeliC, *qaŋeSit, *qaŋeRiS, *qaŋeRu and *qaŋeseR, PWMP *qaŋesej, and PPh *qaŋesu and *qaŋetej.
In addition many forms which are not known to belong to wider cognate sets are found in individual languages or in two or three closely related languages. Some of these are cited in Blust (1988:60ff). Others include Casiguran Dumagat aŋset ‘to smell burnt (of the burning smell of rice which is being over-cooked in a kettle)’, Ifugaw aŋbáb ‘bad odor of urine (or what seems to smell like urine)’, Ifugaw aŋdúd ‘bad odor of a corpse sitting on the death-chair’, Ifugaw (Batad) aŋhub ‘to have underarm odor’, Bikol aŋrós ‘referring to the smell of burned rice’, Maranao anseŋ ‘malodorous’.
27698 *qaŋeRiS stench of spoiling fish 4399 PAN *qaŋeRiS stench of spoiling fish
10961 PMP *qaŋeRih stench of spoiling fish
Note: Also Amis ʔaŋdis ‘strong smell of fish’.
27699 *qaŋeRu stench of spoiled or souring organic matter 4400 PAN *qaŋeRu stench of spoiled or souring organic matter
27700 *qaŋ(e)sej sweaty armpits, stench of sweaty armpits 4401 PWMP *qaŋ(e)sej sweaty armpits, stench of sweaty armpits
Note: Also Bikol baŋsód ‘underarm odor’, Tiruray ansed ‘underarm perspiration odor’.
27701 4402 PAN *qaŋeseR stench of urine [disjunct: *qaŋ(e)cej 'stench of sweaty armpits']
27703 4404 27702 *qaŋeSit stench, musky odor of an animal 4403 PAN *qaŋeSit stench, musky odor of an animal
Note: With diachronic ‘antonymy’ in Iban (Blust 1980b).
27705 *qaŋet anger 4406 PMP *qaŋet anger
Note: With root *-ŋeC ‘angry; gnash the teeth’.
27704 *qaŋ(e)téj stench (of burning hair?) 4405 PPh *qaŋ(e)téj stench, as of burning hair
27706 *qaŋiR fetid, foul-smelling 4407 PMP *qaŋiR fetid, foul-smelling [doublet: *qañir]
Note: Two observations suggest that this form may have been *qaŋ(e)liR: (1) An association of the meaning ‘repulsive odor’ with the phoneme sequence *(C)aŋ(e)CV(C) (where C = consonant) is widespread in Formosa, the Philippines, and Western Indonesia. (2) internal syllable reduction through shwa syncope and the simplification of heterorganic consonant clusters appears to have occurred in all three witnesses.
27709 4410 4411 PAN *q<um>aŋqaŋ to bark, of a dog
Note: Also Paiwan q-m-alʸqalʸ ‘to bark (dog's staccato bark when he spots game)’, Manggarai aŋ ‘sound of a restive dog; growling, barking’. Given the detailed semantic agreement of the reflexes in Kalamian Tagbanwa, Kayan, and perhaps the Paiwan variant, and the existence of other etyma such as *quaŋ ‘howling or yelping of a dog’, it is possible that PAn *qaŋqaŋ referred specifically to the baying of a hunting dog on scenting or cornering prey.
27620 *qapah empty husk (of rice, etc.) 4255 PMP *qapah empty husk (of rice, etc.)
4256 PWMP *qapah qapah empty husk (of rice, etc.)
Note: Also Rejang apai ‘empty or unfilled ears of paddy or other cereals, Buli afa ‘chaff’. Although Buli afa could regularly reflect *qapa, Maan (1940) gives it as a loan from Tobelo. Since the latter is non-Austronesian, the resemblance of the Buli word to the other forms cited here may be due to chance.
32895 *qapaliR surgeonfish: Acanthurus spp. 11354 PMP *qapaliR surgeonfish: Acanthurus spp.
Note: The Oceanic members of this comparison were assembled largely by Osmond (2011:103-104).
27621 *qapejuq gall, gall bladder, bile 4257 PWMP *qapejuq gall, gall bladder, bile [doublet: *qapejux]
27622 *qapejux gall, gall bladder, bile 4258 PAN *qapejux gall, gall bladder, bile [doublet: *qapejuq]
Note: Also Saisiyat paeʔzoʔ ‘gall’, Proto-Rukai *pago ‘gall’, PTso *paʔ₁azu ‘gall bladder’ (Tsuchida 1976:224), Bontok akgó ‘gall bladder’, Ilokano apró ‘bile, gall’, Bintulu ləpəɗəw ‘gall, gall bladder’, Malay lempedu ‘spleen, gall’, Simalur ampadu ‘gall, gall bladder’, Javanese rempelu ‘pancreas’, Bimanese folu ‘gall’. PAn *qapejux and its reflexes in other early proto-languages apparently referred both to the gall bladder and to its contents, although these are distinguished by modifiers in some attested languages (e.g. Iban aiʔ empedu ‘bile, gall’ = ‘liquid of the gall bladder’; Malay pundi-pundi (h)empedu ‘gall bladder’ = ‘sac of the gall’).
As is evident from several glosses cited here, the gall of various (mostly domesticated?) animals was widely used in augury, although specific details cannot be reconstructed. Most notably, a morphologically complex expression which juxtaposed a morpheme or sequence of morphemes meaning ‘without’ or ‘not having’ with the word for ‘gall’ was used in PMP to describe a person who lacked good judgement or a clear understanding of cultural expectations (cf. reflexes in Kelabit, Karo Batak, Tontemboan, Tae', and Manggarai). Unlike the case in European languages such as At the same time the physical bitterness of gall has worked its way into the meanings of some reflexes, or into various expressions using a reflex of *qapejux which are cited in the sources consulted here (reflexes in Tagalog, Cebuano, Maranao, Malagasy, Sangir, Hawu and Rotinese, and such expressions as Malay pahit daripada hempedu ‘more bitter than gall’.
27623 *qa(m)pelas tree with leaves like sandpaper: Ficus spp. 4260 PMP *qa(m)pelas tree with leaves like sandpaper: Ficus spp.
4261 PWMP *maŋ-qa(m)pelas to sandpaper, smooth by abrasion
4262 PWMP *q<um>a(m)pelas to sandpaper
4263 PWMP *qa(m)pelas-en be sandpapered, smoothed by abrasion
Note: Also Ngaju Dayak tampelas ‘generic for trees and creepers with leaves that when dried are very sharp, coarse and tough, so that they are used by the Dayaks for sanding woodwork, darts, knife handles, etc.’, Javanese rempelas ‘a certain tree having rough-textured leaves; sandpaper’, Sangir belasseʔ ‘tree sp.’, Tontemboan awelas ‘Ficus politoria’, Mongondow poḷat, poat ‘tree with leaves that can be used as sandpaper’: Ficus politoria’, Rembong pelan ‘a tree: Ficus sp.’, Wetan apla ‘tree whose leaves are used as torch-wicks’. Ngaju Dayak hampelas exhibits the borrowed (Banjarese) reflex of *q-, but the native reflex of *e (Dyen 1956:85); I assume that it is a Banjarese loan which took place prior to the change of *e to Banjarese /a/. Since all three languages which reflect an initial consonant have merged PMP *q- and *h-, the initial consonant of *qapelas evidently is ambiguous. Tagalog haplás ‘rubbing application of liniment’ and similar forms in other Philippine languages are assumed to be distinct.
30271 *qapiC tongs, anything used to hold things together by pinching 7173 PAN *qapiC tongs, anything used to hold things together by pinching
7199 PMP *qapit tongs, anything used to hold things together by pinching
Note: With root *-piC, disambiguated from earlier *-pit by the Saisiyat form. Kavalan ipit ‘tongs’ (now assigned to *qipit) may also belong here, but given the large number of morphemes in which this root appears multiple interpretations of cognate assignment are often possible.
27624 4264 Note: With root *-pid ‘braid, twine together’. It is tempting to treat this material as falling into two distinct cognate sets, one meaning ‘braid, twine’ and the other ‘twin’. Amis ʔapi ‘twin’ suggests a probable connection between the two meanings.
24858 *qapij twins 267 PMP *qapij twins; double banana [disjunct: *Sabij]
Note: Also Amis ʔapi ‘twin; double (as a banana)’, Hanunóo kápid ‘twin(s)’, Hiligaynon kápid ‘twin, double’, Karo Batak galuh rapit ‘double banana’, Javanese Dampit ‘boy-girl twins’, Bare'e mo-rapi ‘twin’. Although PMP *apij can only be glossed ‘twins’, it appears that PWMP *apij referred both to twins and to double fruits, particularly fused bananas. The recurrent references to double bananas in such WMP languages as Kayan (Uma Juman) and Mongondow, and the parallel association of twinning with humans and fruits in the similar but non-corresponding Amis and Karo Batak forms, raise the possibility that *apij ‘twins’ and *qapid ‘braid, twine’ are actually the same morpheme (since both the strands of a braided rope, and double bananas are joined along the length). However, *qapid appears definitely to end in *d, and if Roviana avisi truly belongs in this cognate set (and not with *Sabij), *apij must end in *j.
27626 4266 PAN *qapucuk peak of a mountain [doublet: *pucek]
Note: Also Ngaju Dayak pamucok (used only after the words mantir or kapala) ‘the highest; chief, leader’, Ngaju Dayak tampusok ‘peak; end of a fishnet’, Buginese pucuʔ ‘vegetation; high point, as of growing vegetation’, Makasarese (Turatea) pussu pussu ‘peak of a banana tree or bamboo with sharp point’. Based on proposed cognates in Tagalog, Toba Batak, Javanese, Malay, and Ngaju Dayak Dempwolff (1934-38) proposed *pucuk ‘peak’. Tagalog pusók ‘ardor, impetuousity’, appears to support Dempwolff's reconstruction of a disyllabic base, but is of questionable cognation. Finally, Bare'e sometimes preserves prepenultimate *a which came to be initial (e.g. *qapeju > apoju ‘gall’), and sometimes loses it (e.g. *qateluR > toyu ‘egg’).
27627 4267 PAN *qapuR lime, calcium [doublet: *kapuR]
4268 PWMP *maŋ-qapuR make lime by burning shells
4269 PPh *maR-qapuR prepare betel chew with lime
4270 PWMP *paŋ-qapuR-an lime container
4271 PWMP *paR-qapuR-an lime container
4272 Note: Also Tsou (Tsuchida) hapuru ‘lime’, Favorlang/Babuza abo ‘lime’, Paiwan qavu ‘betel lime’, Paiwan q-m-avu ‘apply whitewash’, Paiwan apu ‘betelnut quid’, Paiwan m-apu ‘chew betelnut’, Maranao apor ‘lime’, Puyuma (Tamalakaw) -apuR ‘chew betel nut with lime’, Samal apog ‘betel chew (literary)’, Simalur aul ‘lime, calcium’, Sundanese apu ‘prepared lime; wall mortar, betel lime’, Old Javanese apuh ‘lime’, Buruese ahul ‘lime’, Buruese apo ‘lime’, Seimat wap ‘lime’, Mbula kou ‘lime powder (made by heating up pieces of coral)’, ko-kou ‘be white’, Lau rafu ‘smear with lime or powdered rock, limestone or soapstone; lime the hair; white, from lying in ashes; white from immersion in the sea, encrusted with salt’, Lau fou rafu ‘limestone rock for whitening’, Kwaio safu ‘important divination using lime; magic, using lime, to protect from sorcery and foreign objects’. PAn *qapuR and its descendant forms are one of the key elements in the linguistic evidence for the betel culture which accompanied Austronesian speakers as they spread from island Southeast Asia into the western Pacific. Betel-chewing spread as far as the Southeastern Solomons, but either never reached Vanuatu and points further south and east, or was replaced in those areas by the later, innovative consumption of kava (Piper methisticum), which evidently had its origin in Vanuatu (Crowley 1990).
Scattered references in a number of the sources clearly indicate that lime was made by the burning of mollusc shells or coral limestone, and in the earlier phases of Austronesian expansion was carried on the person in a small gourd container (later replaced in island Southeast Asia by the brass betel box). Lime may also have been used as a whitewash (oblique references in Amis and Kwaio), and by at least PCEMP times, if not earlier, lime powder evidently was blown as a ritual gesture of some type (references in Tetun and 'Āre'āre).
The comparisons of lime to sago flesh in two widely separated languages (Kenyah and Fordata) are interesting, but difficult to interpret without more context. Tiruray fag-aful-an (for anticipated **ferafuran, from *paR-qapuR-an) is assumed to be a loan from a still unidentified source, but problems remain even with this interpretation (*R > /g/ in the prefix, but *R > /l/ in the stem). It is possible that the reconstruction of *paR-qapuR-an, a form that appears to have been entirely synonymous with *paŋ-qapuR-an, is simply misguided. Finally, Chamorro Hu naʔye afok i maiʔes ‘I put lime on the corn’ and Wetan air-i ‘lime, put lime on’ appear to reflect two stages in the history of the suffix *-i ‘local transitive’, the first while it still remains a generic preposition marking location in space or time, and the second after it has become a transitive verb suffix with locative overtones.
27708 *qa(m)pus come to an end, be destroyed 4409 PMP *qa(m)pus come to an end, be destroyed
Note: Also Itbayaten aʔpos ‘idea of wearing out/down’. With root *-pus₁ ‘end, finish’.
27628 4273 PAN *qaqay foot, leg [doublet: *waqay]
4274 Note: Also Atayal (Squliq) kakay ‘foot, leg, hind leg’, Palawan Batak aʔáʔi ‘leg’ (Warren 1959), Maranao aʔi ‘foot, leg’, Malay kaki ‘foot; leg; base’, Vaikenu haɛ-f ‘foot’, Biga kae ‘leg, foot’, Windesi ai ‘foot’, Manam ai ‘foot’, Gitua age ‘leg, foot’, Tolai kāki(-na) ‘leg, bone’, Cheke Holo gahe ‘foot, leg’, Bugotu nae-ña ‘foot, leg’, Lau ʔae ‘foot, leg’.
Many words which may reflect *qaqay are ambiguous for *qaqay or *waqay. The loss of *q and contraction of the resulting sequence of like vowels in this form led to a canonically atypical monosyllabic content word /ay/ in some languages. In response to canonical pressure this sequence was resyllabified as /ai/, or even /ayi/. Where the final diphthong had been monophthongized to -/e/ prior to loss of *q such pressures were inapplicable.
It is noteworthy that although a single term appears to have been used for both ‘foot’ and ‘leg’ in PAn, PMP and PWMP, such parts of the leg as the shin (*lulud), calf (*bitiqis) and thigh (*paqa) were terminologically distinguished by at least PWMP times, and reflexes of the latter two have often replaced reflexes of *qaqay in the meaning ‘foot, leg’.
27633 4281 Note: Also Ngaju Dayak haramauŋ ‘leopard’. Dempwolff (1934-38) assigned Ngaju Dayak harimauŋ to *harimaw (Tagalog halimaw ‘ferocious beast’, Toba Batak arimo ‘leopard’, Malay harimau ‘tiger’). The historical relationship between these items is unclear, but the distribution of the latter forms is likely to be due to borrowing from Malay.
27635 *qari-ñuan a small bee: Apis indica 4283 PMP *qari-ñuan a small bee: Apis indica [doublet: *qani-Ruan]
Note: Also Simalur aniwan ‘wild bee’, Malay (Jakarta) ñaruan ‘bee or hornet’, Sasak keñeruh, keñeruhan ‘bee’. It would be attractive to unit (a) and (b) under a single etymon, relating forms such as Ilokano arinuán and Malay neruan through metathesis. Since the known reflexes of (a) are both more common and more widely attested than those of (b) (being found in WMP and CMP languages), *qani-Ruan is perhaps the preferred shape of such an invariant prototype. But under this interpretation we must recognize at least three independent metatheses (Ilokano, the Bornean forms, Toba Batak), of which the second followed the sporadic palatalization of *n before *i.
An invariant prototype *qari-ñuan not only exacerbates this problem, but cannot account for the stem-initial g of various Philippine reflexes. This difficulty might be alleviated by positing *qaRi-ñuan, but among other obstacles to such an interpretation independent evidence for a prefix *qaRi- is unknown. On balance, then, the reconstruction of doublets with complementary affixation, although not without its problems, appears preferable to an invariant prototype. Sundanese ñiruan could be a metathesis of (b).
27634 *qarita the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum 4282 POC *qarita the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum [doublet: *qatita]
33317 *qaruqan mudfish 11855 PWMP *qaruqan mudfish [doublet: *haruqan]
27631 4279 Note: Also Bikol agáɁ ‘tree with bark once cured and used to make clothing’, Sangir ara ‘fig tree’. Part of this comparison was first noted by Verheijen (1967-70) who, however, proposed no reconstruction. In addition to the forms cited here, he mentions Sundanese ara which does not appear in the sources available to me.
33785 12564 27629 *qaRama crab sp. (?) 4275 PWMP *qaRama crab sp.
27630 *qaRaw snatch, take away by force, rob 4276 PAN *qaRaw snatch, take away by force, rob
4277 PWMP *maŋ-qaRaw snatch, take away by force
4278 PPh *qaRaw-en be snatched away, taken away by force
Note: Also Paiwan qaraw-an ‘covet; covetousness’. The basic sense of *qaRaw appears to have been ‘to take by force’. It implicitly assumes the concept of personal ownership, and is concerned with acts that violate the proprietary rights of the individual with regard either to material property or to a spouse. As such it probably referred to robbery as opposed to theft (*Cakaw). In reciprocal constructions such as those cited for Puyuma and Kelabit the meaning carries less a sense of illegitimate seizure than that of rightful possession by the stronger of two competitors.
27632 *qaRem pangolin, scaly anteater 4280 PAN *qaRem pangolin, scaly anteater
Note: Also Kanakanabu kani-arúm-ai ‘pangolin, anteater’ (Tsuchida 1976:171), Paiwan (Western) qale-qalem-an ‘pangolin, anteater’, Kayan hem ‘pangolin, anteater’.
Tsuchida (1976:318) posits ‘PHES’ doublets, *qaRem, qaRum, but almost all of the supporting evidence for the latter variant is ambiguous for *e or *u.
Two species of scaly anteater or pangolin are found in island Southeast Asia: 1. the Manis pentadactyla, and 2. the Manis javanica Desmarest. The former is confined to Taiwan, while the latter has a fairly wide distribution including the island of Palawan and the adjacent Kalamian and Cuyo Islands in the Philippines, the Greater Sunda Islands of Indonesia, including Borneo, Sumatra and Java, and portions of the Southeast Asian mainland (Taylor 1934).
Since the islands where the more southerly species is found all rest on the submerged Sunda Shelf, and since this is not true of any other Philippine islands, it is likely that the Manis javanica acquired its attested distribution at a time when the Greater Sunda Islands of Indonesia and the Palawan group of the Philippines were joined with the Asian mainland. PAn *qaRem presumably referred to the Manis pentadactyla, but since its reflexes refer to both species we are faced with a puzzle: how did the name for ‘pangolin’ survive when Austronesian speakers moved south into parts of the Philippines where pangolins were not found?
There are several possibilities: (1) some form of pangolin formerly was found in Luzon, The first of these hypotheses apparently is not supported by any known fossil evidence. The second is contradicted by the evidence of linguistic subgrouping, which suggests an Austronesian expansion southward from Taiwan through the Philippines into Indonesia. This leaves only the third hypothesis as a plausible alternative: the appearance of cognate names referring to a geographically discontinuous genus probably results from a fairly rapid expansion of Austronesian speakers from the northern Philippines into western Indonesia. For information relating to the distribution of the genus Manis in Southeast Asia I am indebted to Ray Ziegler, mammalogist at the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, with whom I discussed this problem in 1972.
30224 *qaReNu a plant, Phragmites spp. 7082 PAN *qaReNu a plant, Phragmites spp.
Note: Also Atayal (Squliq) qolu, Seediq (Truku) glu ‘a plant: Phragmites longivalis’. The Formosan part of this comparison was first noted by Li (1994).
29964 6648 PAN *qaRidaŋ bean, pea (generic)
Note: Also Amis kalitaŋ ‘string beans, green beans’. This comparison was first noted by Li (1994).
29965 *qaRiw dry 6649 PAN *qaRiw dry
Note: Based on its limited geographical spread this may be a loan distribution, but there is nothing in the sound correspondences that would lead us to this conclusion.
27636 *qaRsam fern sp. 4284 PMP *qaRsam fern sp.
4285 POC *qasam fern used for tying and binding
Note: Also Tiruray ansam ‘edible fern: Helminthostachy zeylanica (Linn. Hook’, Karo Batak ersam ‘tough fern which grows on the high plateau’.
27637 4286 PAN *qaRsem sourness, acidity [doublet: *qalesem, *qasem]
4287 27638 *qaRta outsiders, alien people 4288 PMP *qaRta outsiders, alien people
Note: Also Bikol agtáʔ ‘Negrito, Aeta, Philippine aborigine’, Aklanon ágtaʔ ‘Negrito, Ate (aborigine of Panay); black, very dark skinned’, Aklanon áti(h) ‘Negritos (living in the mountains), Cebuano ágtaʔ ‘supernatural man of dark complexion and extraordinary size, said to inhabit trees, cliffs, or empty houses. He is said to play practical jokes on people, kidnap them. He has a large cigar in his mouth; name occasionally given to Negritos’, Maranao agtaʔ ‘witch, black demon; black’, aita ‘Negrito, mountain people with kinky hair and small stature’, Maranao ateʔ ‘person who is dark brown to black’, Simalur hata ‘person, human being’, Kisar ake ‘slave’.
Grace (1972) suggests that Canala (New Caledonia) ka ‘enemy, one to be killed and eaten’ may be connected, but this would be the only known reflex of *qaRta in an Oceanic language, and in view of the phonemic brevity of the form I do not see how convergence can safely be excluded as an explanation of the observed similarity. Reid (1989:51), Reid (n.d.) posits *qaRtaq, a form which is supported by several Central Philippine witnesses as noted above, but which is in conflict with the absence of a final consonant in at least Tagalog, Sama-Bajaw, Proto-Minahasan, Mongondow, Palauan, and Rembong. Since the latter languages form a rather diverse collection, it is simpler to hypothesize an irregular change in one Central Philippine language which diffused to surrounding speech communities rather than an irregular loss of *-q on as many as six historically independent occasions.
Finally, the arguments presented in Blust (1972) for assigning a meaning ‘outsiders, alien people’ to this form now appear stronger than ever. Based on ‘occurrences of unique alleles’ Bellwood (1997 [1985]) notes that the Negritos of Luzon and Mindanao probably have been separated for over 10,000 years. The distribution of phenotypically similar Negrito populations in the interior of the Malay Peninsula and in the Andaman Islands suggests that a Negrito population was widespread in island Southeast Asia when phenotypically southern Mongoloid Austronesian-speaking populations began to arrive in the region. Blust (1981) argues for cultural contact and borrowing of animistic beliefs between indigenous Negrito and incoming Austronesian -speaking groups by about 3,000 B.C.
Most recently Reid (1987) has argued persuasively that incoming agricultural Austronesians must have encountered an established Negrito hunter-gatherer population in the Philippines which over the course of time assimilated linguistically to the new arrivals. Under such conditions it is not difficult to see how *qaRta would have been applied by Austronesian speakers to the Negrito population of the Philippines, and ultimately adopted as a self-designation by some of these same groups. In other areas the term came to be applied to outsiders taken in war whose social position was that of ‘slave’ (someone with no claims to filiation with lineages of the dominant group). More puzzling are the semantic innovations which caused *qaRta to replace PMP *tau in the meaning ‘person, human being’.
27639 *qaRuas young growth stage of mullet 4289 PMP *qaRuas young growth stage of mullet
Note: Also Kapingamarangi huoua ‘young mullet’. Zorc (1979) gives PCPH *agwas ‘(fish) Mugilidae’.
27640 *qaRuhu a shore tree: Casuarina equisetifolia 4290 PMP *qaRuhu a shore tree: Casuarina equisetifolia [disjunct: *aRuhu]
27641 4291 4292 PWMP *taqi qaRus driftwood and scum lit. 'refuse of the current'
Note: Also Isneg áyus ‘to flow, to stream, to run’, Kankanaey áyus ‘to flow; to pour; to run; to stream; to gush; to trickle’, Kapampangan águs ‘current’, Melanau (Mukah) arus ‘flow of water’, Kambera arihu ‘current’, Niue āu ‘current’. Reduplicated reflexes of *qaRus occur in several widely separated languages, but since these have no known common referent I treat them as convergent innovations.
PMP *qaRus clearly meant ‘current’ (either of rivers or the sea), but also appears to have functioned verbally in the meaning ‘to flow’. Agreements in widely separated reflexes suggest that in its verbal sense *qaRus referred to a viscous, slow, heavy movement, probably in contrast to a rushing flow of liquid (PMP *deRes). Thus both Cebuano águs and Tongan ʔau refer to the oozing of pus (the latter in explicit contrast to the flowing of blood), and Nias mo-ho-hou and Motu aru refer to the slowly flowing movement of crowds of people. Given these agreements the argument that Old Javanese hos ‘exerting oneself, (moving) with difficulty, going heavily, heavy (heart, breathing)’ belongs with this set is significantly enhanced.
31863 *qaRutay a plant in the banana family, probably Musa textilis 10064 PPh *qaRutay a plant in the banana family, probably Musa textilis
Note: This comparison was first noted by Zorc (1986:163). It was then discussed by Donohue and Denham (2009:303ff) who, however, attempted to connect the legitimate cognate set cited here with a large number of other forms in western and eastern Indonesia, Papua, mainland Southeast Asia, South Asia, and even the Middle East (Pashto) based solely on phonetic similarity. The highly speculative ethnobotanical hypothesis they propose based on this is simply not supported by scientifically reliable linguistic evidence.
27642 *qasak stuff or press in, be squeezed in 4293 PWMP *qasak stuff or press in, be squeezed in [doublet: *hasek₂]
27643 4294 PAN *qasawa spouse: husband, wife
4295 4296 PWMP *maR-qasawa marry; have a spouse
4297 PMP *pa-qasawa marry off, cause to get married
4298 PPh *paŋ-qasawa (gloss uncertain)
4299 PPh *tala-qasawa married couple
4300 PWMP *q<in>asawa was married to
4301 PPh *qasawa-en be married, person married
Note: Also Isneg asáwa ‘husband, wife’, mag-asáwa ‘to marry’, Taboyan sauʔ ‘wife’, Singhi Land Dayak sowe-n ‘wife’, Leti sā ‘marry’, Bonfia sowe-n ‘spouse’, Sekar isawa- ‘spouse’, Tarpia tawa ‘husband’, Lakalai harua- ‘husband’, Wogeo yawa- ‘spouse’, Manam roa ‘husband, wife’, Tongan hoa ‘mate, partner, fellow, other member of a pair, counterpart; husband or wife’, Samoan āvā ‘wife’. Most Oceanic reflexes of *qasawa show an assimilation of *-aw- to -/o/- in this form. However, given the retention of the original three vowels in the Central District languages of southeastern New Guinea (e.g. Motu, Mekeo (East), Roro) it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that this assimilatory change took place independently in a number of widely separated languages. I am grateful to Yen-ling Chen for providing translations from the Sakizaya-Chinese dictionary of Lin (2011).
27644 *qaseb smoke 4302 PAN *qaseb smoke [doublet: *qasep]
Note: Also Berawan (Long Terawan) cam ‘smoke’, Bintulu sab ‘smoke’.
27648 *qaseŋ breath 4307 PWMP *qaseŋ breath
Note: Also Melanau (Mukah) naseŋ ‘heart; emotions’, Banggai asaaŋ ‘breath’, Paulohi aseh ‘breathe’. Ba'amang, Kapuas /h/ normally derives from *R, and only rarely reflects *q; its presence in the forms cited here remains somewhat problematic.
27647 *qasep smoke 4305 PWMP *qasep smoke [doublet: *qaseb] [disjunct: *asep]
4306 PWMP *qasep-an (gloss uncertain)
27646 *qasepa astringent 4304 PAN *qasepa astringent [disjunct: *sapela]
Note: For an alternative assignment of Malay sepa see Blust (1982), where this item is compared with Cebuano sapla ‘slightly bitter in taste with an astringent effect, as unripe bananas’, and the two assigned to *sapela.
27652 4329 27649 *qasiN saltiness, salty taste 4308 PAN *qasiN saltiness, salty taste
*q
WMP Ilokano
a particle expressing confirmation; yes indeed (I agree)
a particle expressing confirmation
wen a yes indeed (I agree)
Bontok
ʔaa expression of recognition or agreement
Ibaloy
a adverb: of course, as would be expected, naturally
a of course, as would be expected, naturally
Pangasinan
a interjection expressing hesitation, agreement, disagreement, etc.
Agutaynen
ka indeed
ka indeed
Formosan Atayal
qa-ni this, these; here
WMP Maranao
a-nan that
Kayan (Uma Juman)
a-nan that
Malagasy
a- a prefix used like an-, am-, and i-, to make a noun into a preposition; e.g. morona '(the) edge', amorona 'at the edge'; nosy 'an island', anosy 'on an island'
Tontemboan
a- (followed or not followed by a nasal), prefix that expresses the dative or locative: to, in, at, on, toward, with, over
Mongondow
a- prefixed marker of location; a monik 'above, on top', a monag 'below, underneath'
OC Tolai
a preposition: to, in, of, at
Mono-Alu
-a suffix of place
Chuukese
a- locative prefix, at
Mota
a- simple preposition, locative; at; before infinitive verb, to; used before the names of places; forms compound preposition, avune 'on', etc.
Samoan
a- particle occurring in certain nominal constructions, especially with locatives
Maori
a- particle used before names of places and local nouns when they (a) stand as subject in a sentence, (b) are repeated by way of explanation (Formosan only)
Formosan Kavalan
i interrogative particle, as in q<m>am ti isu i (eat.av-pm-2s-ip) ‘Have you eaten yet?’
Thao
qa interrogative particle, as in ma-cuaw ihu ma-ania qa (very-2s-intelligent-ip) ‘Are you really so smart?’
Formosan Kanakanabu
abaŋu boat, canoe
Saaroa
ʔabaŋə boat, canoe
Siraya
avaŋ boat, sampan
Proto-Rukai
*avaŋə boat, canoe
WMP Yami
avaŋ warship, large boat, boat; to ride
y-avaŋ to give a ride to
Itbayaten
avaŋ big boat with sail and oar, but (operated) mainly by sail, with about thirty crew members and about thirty passengers. It is not used any more
maŋ-avaŋ go to a far place by avaŋ
Arta
abaŋ boat
Gaddang
abaŋ boat, canoe
Casiguran Dumagat
abeŋ canoe, small boat (with outriggers); to travel by boat
Maranao
awaŋ boat
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
avaŋ small boat, dugout canoe
Tiruray
ʔawaŋ canoe or small boat powered by paddle or outboard motor
Moken
kabaŋ houseboat, group of Moken boats
Mentawai
abak boat; travel by boat
WMP Malay
(h)ambaŋ afloat in mid-air. Of a bird resting on its pinions; of the newly risen sun and moon as they leave the horizon
Simalur
abaŋ to fly
Tae'
aaŋ float, drift on the water
Proto-South Sulawesi
*a(b)aŋ float, drift
WMP Manobo (Kalamansig Cotabato)
abaŋ-abaŋ be floating
Karo Batak
abaŋ-abaŋ tree with large leguminous fruits that produce very light, winged seeds
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
abaŋ-abaŋ fly about in the air like a bird
Formosan Saisiyat (Taai)
ʔæbaLaɁ shoulder
Pazeh
ʔabaxaʔ shoulder (Ferrell 1968)
Sakizaya
abalaʔ shoulder
Amis
ʔafala shoulder
paki-ʔafala carry on the shoulders
Amis (Central)
afala shoulder
WMP Ilokano
y-abága place on the shoulder
abága shoulder
Isneg
abáxa shoulder
Itawis
abáha shoulder
Yogad
abaga shoulder
Umiray Dumaget
abe shoulder
Ibaloy
abada shoulder
Pangasinan
abalá shoulder
Sambal (Botolan)
abaya shoulder
Bikol
abága shoulder; side of a mountain
Bantuqanon
abaga shoulder
Aklanon
abága(h) shoulder(s); take responsibility, to shoulder, take on
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kabala upper arm
Palawan Batak
ʔabagá shoulder
Cebuano
abága shoulder; take responsibility for accomplishing something
abagá-hun broad-shouldered
Maranao
waga shoulder
Mansaka
abagá shoulder
Maguindanao
wága shoulder
Tiruray
wara shoulder
Blaan (Koronadal)
bala shoulder next to the neck
Belait
bareh shoulder
Basap
bara shoulder
Berawan (Long Terawan)
bikih shoulder
Ngaju Dayak
baha shoulder
Tsat
phia¹¹ shoulder
Cham
bra shoulder
Jarai
bra shoulder
Rhade
mra shoulder
Karo Batak
bara shoulder
Toba Batak
abara shoulder
maŋ-abara carry on the shoulder
paŋ-abara-an wooden pole or burden which rests on the shoulders in carrying
Mongondow
obaga shoulder
Bare'e
awaa shoulder
Mori
owea shoulder
Wolio
awaa shoulder (esp. the fore part)
Muna
ghowea shoulder; carry together on shoulders
Chamorro
apaga carry (something) on the shoulder; shoulder
CMP Li'o
wara shoulder
Tugun
fara carry on the shoulder
Leti
wara carry on the shoulder
Selaru
har carry on the shoulder
Yamdena
bare take, have, or carry on the shoulder
Fordata
avara take, have, or carry on the shoulder
W.Tarangan (Ngaibor)
pera shoulder
Elat
fara- shoulder
Hitu
hala shoulder
Asilulu
hala shoulder
Sekar
bara-r shoulder
ba-bare, ba-bara-n the outermost point of the shoulder
SHWNG Irarutu
far carry on the shoulder
Waropen
awaro carry on the shoulder
OC Tolai
ul-a-vara-na shoulder; clavicle
Kove
wala shoulder
Gitua
bara carry on shoulder
Ubir
abara-n shoulder
Gapapaiwa
kavara shoulder
Bwaidoga/Bwaidoka
avala-na his shoulder; carry something on the shoulder
Dobuan
ʔara-na shoulder
Molima
ʔavala-na, avala-na shoulder
avala carry, esp. on the shoulder
Selau
war-wara shoulder
Mono-Alu
fala shoulder
Roviana
avara-na shoulder
Nggela
vala shoulder; collarbone
'Āre'āre
ahara-na shoulder
Sa'a
ahala shoulder
Marshallese
aerā shoulder
Chuukese
afar shoulder (of human, animal, bottle)
Puluwat
yayéfar' shoulder, load carried on the shoulder
Woleaian
yefar (yafara) shoulder
Formosan Pazeh
abaxa-n shoulder (Ferrell 1969)
Amis
ʔafaraʔ-an shoulder (Ferrell 1969)
Paiwan
qava-n shoulder
WMP Kankanaey
abága-n shoulder (used only in tales)
WMP Mansaka
abága top hand on a stalk of bananas
OC Molima
ʔavala-na, avala-na topmost hands of banana
Formosan Paiwan
qavas a blaze (mark cut on tree to show ownership)
WMP Kayan
avaʔ notch or partial cut in a tree; a wound
WMP Manobo (Dibabawon)
abatod edible larva of palm tree beetle
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
evated corn worm
OC Nggela
vato species of grub eaten as food on Mala
Lau
safao grub that eats sago palms
'Āre'āre
rahao big white worm living in dead trees
Sa'a
sahao grub found in fallen logs of breadfruit tree, supposed to turn into the cockchafer beetle
Fijian
yavato a grub in a tree which develops into the coleopterus called qou (large coleopterus resembling a stag beetle)
Tongan
ʔofato kind of white grub found in timber (sometimes eaten by Tongans)
WMP Mongondow
obatog large larva in e.g. a sago palm or a coconut palm
CMP Paulohi
hatele larva of the beetle Euchirus longimanus L. which lives in the trunks of sago palms and is eaten as a delicacy
hatele ina-i sago beetle
SHWNG Buli
pata kind of edible worm found in sago palms
OC Papitalai
ehet sago grub
OC Drehet
hek sago grub
Kove
awatolu sago grub
Lau
safao grub that eats sago palms
Sye
n/avat edible wood-grub
Fijian
yavato a grub in a tree which develops into the coleopterus called qou (large coleopterus resembling a stag beetle)
Tongan
ʔofato kind of white grub found in timber (sometimes eaten by Tongans)
WMP Ilokano
abátir a grub that attacks wood, bamboo, etc.
OC Penchal
kahIt sago grub
Lenkau
kehetr sago grub
Pak
keher sago grub
Loniu
het sago grub
Ere
ehet sago grub
Titan
aet sago grub
WMP Bikol
ambód to wrap; to band, bandage
Malay
(h)ambat noose at the deck-end of a boat's stays
Balinese
ambed strap, girth (horse)
OC Gedaged
abi take hold of, grab, seize, grasp, clutch, take
Numbami
-ambi hold, get, take
Kilivila
kabi hold, take hold of
Bwaidoga/Bwaidoka
abi take hold of something, grasp something
WMP Maranao
abin carry on or near the stomach
Alas
abin hug a child who is cold
Karo Batak
abin hold in the lap, hold or carry against the bosom
abin-abin-en the lap
Rejang
ambin shawl for carrying infant on back or at waist
Old Javanese
(h)awin bear, bring along (weapon, insignia, betel set), of someone escorting a person of rank
Balinese
abin hold in the lap
Banggai
abin carry in the arms
Uma
-awi put in the lap
Muna
ghawi lap, hold in the lap
Palauan
ʔ-il-abl carried under the arm
ʔa-ʔabl (mother and child) walk together, with child carried under mother's arm
OC Bugotu
avin-i carry in the arms
Nggela
avi carry a child under the arm
Sa'a
äpi hold under the arm, hold close to the body
WMP Karo Batak
ŋ-abin hold or carry in the lap
Banggai
maŋ-abin carry in the arms
moŋ-obin-i take in the arms
Palauan
məŋ-abl carry under the arm
WMP Rungus Dusun
avi finished, used up
Kadazan Dusun
avi dwindle away, finish
mag-avi to finish completely, consume, use up, exhaust, spend
ŋa-avi all, every, everything
Murut (Tagol)
ka-awiʔ all
Miri
m-abiʔ to finish
Iban
ambih finished
Proto-Chamic
*abih all
Acehnese
habéh finished, done, at an end
WMP Kelabit
abi last one
abi-abi all, evey one
ŋ-abi to finish
Iban
abis everyone, all, the whole, entirely; finished, used up
Malay
habis done with; all used up; finished off
Old Javanese
(h)awis finished, completely gone
WMP Ilokano
um-abʔáb to drink while kneeling (from a faucet); to drink from the palms of the hands; to drink without a cup
Ibaloy
abʔab-en to swill, gulp, drink copious drafts of a liquid, perhaps loudly (as water, gin); also can apply to a person who eats voraciously out of hunger
Tausug
mag-abʔab to eat or drink voraciously (derogatory, connotes criticism or anger)
Formosan Kavalan
ibu ashes
Saisiyat
ʔaebo ashes, powder
Proto-Atayalic
*qabu-lid ashes
Pazeh
abu ashes
Amis
ʔafo ashes; fertilizer
Favorlang/Babuza
abo ashes or cinders; lime
Bunun (Isbukun)
Xabu ashes
Bunun (Takituduh)
qabu ash (Li 1988)
Siraya (Gravius)
avo ash
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
Havu ashes
kaR-Havu-Havu ashy (of color)
Paiwan
qavu ashes; betel lime
WMP Itbayaten
avo ashes, ash (which can be used as soap)
Ilokano
ábo ash-gray; cock with gray plumage and reddish tail
Isneg
abó ashes
ab-abó the powder that covers the body of locusts
Itawis
ahú ash
Bontok
ʔabú ashes which settle after something is burned; dust which settles after pounding rice or cleaning something
Kankanaey
abó dust (used instead of abé in mourning songs)
Casiguran Dumagat
abú fireplace, ashes, stove
Ayta Maganchi
abuh ashes
Kapampangan
abú ashes
Tagalog
abó ashes
Bikol
abó ash, cinder
Inati
abo ash
Aklanon
abó(h) ash(es); to make ashes
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kabu ash
Palawan Batak
ʔábo ashes
Cebuano
abú ashes
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
avu fireplace; stove
Tiruray
ʔawew ashes
Kalagan
abu ashes
Bisaya (Lotud)
awu ash
Kadazan Dusun
t-avu ash
man-avu-n spread ashes in the nursery
Tatana
abu ash
Kujau
tavu ash
Minokok
tavuʔ ash
Supan
avu ash
Bisaya (Lotud)
awu ashes
Basap
abu ash
Tabun
abo ash
Kelabit
abuh ashes
Berawan (Long Terawan)
akkuh ashes
Dali'
abaw ash
Kenyah
abu ash, stove
Kenyah (Long Wat)
avew ashes
umaʔ avew kitchen
Murik
abuʔ ashes from the cooking fire; hearth
Kayan
avoʔ fireplace, hearth
Bintulu
avəw ashes, dust
Melanau Dalat (Kampung Teh)
abəw ash
Bukat
avu ashes
Delang
habu ash
Iban
abu dust, fine ash
Salako
abu ash
Tsat
phə¹¹ ashes
Moken
kaboi dust on road, dirt, ashes
Malay
(h)abu ash; powder produced by combustion; "ash-colored", as a descriptive name for animals
Talaud
avu ash
Simalur
afu kitchen, hearth, cooking place
afu-afu fireplace for warming women after childbirth
Karo Batak
r-abu-abu play in the dust
abu ash, dust
Nias
hawu fine ash, as cigarette ash; remainder, sweepings, rubbish, dust, powder
Mentawai
abu white ash
Sundanese
hawu fireplace, hearth, overn
Old Javanese
(h)awu ash, ashes
hawu-hawu powder
Javanese
awu ash
Balinese
abu ashes, earth mixed with ash; cigar-ash; dirt; dust, powder
Sasak
au-au ash
Proto-Sangiric
*abu ashes, dust
Sangir
awu ash
Proto-Minahasan
*abu ash, dust
Mongondow
abu ash, hearth, cooking place (part of the house)
Gorontalo
wahu ashes from the hearth
Petapa Taje
avu ash
Bare'e
awu ash, dust
Tae'
au ash
punti au kind of banana that is grayish when unripe
Mori Atas
avu ashes
Padoe
avu ash
Moronene
avu ash
Proto-South Sulawesi
*a(b)u dust, ashes
Makassarese
abu-abu gray (of substances)
au ash, dust
Muna
ghabu kitchen; ashes
Palauan
ʔab ashes; fireplace; hearth
ʔəbú-l its ashes
ʔəbə-ʔab dust (especially under house)
Chamorro
apu ash -- the remaining substance of what was burned
CMP Bimanese
awu ash, remainder of something that has been burnt; hearth
Manggarai
awu ash
Ngadha
avu dust, powder, earth, ash
da avu ash gray
Keo
awu-awu ash
Li'o
awu ash
Sika
ʔawu native cooking place; hearth; ash; gray
ʔawu-ʔareŋ burned to ash
awu-ŋ ash gray
Kambera
au hearth; ash; ash-colored, gray
Hawu
awu dust; gray, blue
awu raʔu ash
Dhao/Ndao
ahu-ahu ashes
Rotinese
afu ash, dust; in combining forms: ash-colored, gray
Leti
awu ash
Wetan
awi ashes, dust
Selaru
afu-re hearth
Yamdena
afu ash; hearth
Soboyo
afu ash
SHWNG Waropen
awu hearth, ash
Papuma
wavu ash
Woi
wabu ash
Serui-Laut
wawu ash
SHWNG Munggui
wabu ash
OC Lou
kɔp dust (open 'o')
Mussau
au ash
Tolai
kăbu ashes, dust, cinders; grey, dusty (a with breve)
Vitu
havu-havu dust
havu fireplace, hearth
Gitua
avu-avu ash
Suau
ʔahu ash
Bwaidoga/Bwaidoka
avu ashes
Tubetube
kau ashes
Malmariv
mam-avu ashes
WMP Itbayaten
ma-avo ashy
Kelabit
m-abuh dusty, covered with dust or ashes
Kenyah
m-abu dusty
Malagasy
m-avo brown; grey?
Old Javanese
ma-hawu smear oneself with ash?
Gorontalo
ma-ahu burned up, turned to ash
Bare'e
ma-awu extremely numerous, as grains of dust
Palauan
mə-ʔab (atmostphere, view) dim/blurred; grayish
WMP Kelabit
ŋ-abuh make dusty, cover with ashes or dust
Bintulu
məŋ-avəw cover with ashes
Old Javanese
aŋ-hawu become ashes
Javanese
ŋ-awu scatter ashes onto
Palauan
məŋ-áb put ashes on, get ashes in
WMP Itbayaten
pi-avo-an ash tray
Javanese
p-awo-n kitchen
Sasak
p-ao-n kitchen
WMP Kelabit
n-abuh was covered with ashes or dust
Old Javanese
h-in-awu-hawu make into powder
Palauan
ʔ-əl-ab had ashes put on
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
Havu-an hearth
Paiwan
qavu-qavu-an stove, three-stone fireplace for cooking
WMP Itbayaten
avo-an scatter ashes, put ash to
Kapampangan
abw-an scour using ash
Tagalog
ábuh-an ash-tray, ashcan, table stove
Cebuano
al-abúh-an stove or any place a fire for cooking is built
Tae'
au-an become covered with dust (after sitting long in one place)
WMP Tagalog
abuh-ín clean (something) with ashes; ashy, gray or grayish
Bikol
aboh-ón gray; a grayish colored chicken
Aklanon
abuh-ón gray, ashen color(ed)
Cebuano
abúh-un ash-colored
manuk ŋa abuhun gray-colored cock
Old Javanese
awu-hawu-n-en reduced to ashes? in a state of decay?
WMP Cebuano
abuábu fish sp.
Banjarese
anakan habu minute young of the murrel (Ophiocephalus striatus)
Malay (Jakarta)
ikan abu-abu fish sp.
Pendau
avu-avu kind of ocean fish
WMP Cebuano
ábud throw grains to; drop grains into ahole in planting
Maranao
abod feed by casting grains, as to fowls
Javanese
awur scattered; to scatter (as sand or rice grains)
WMP Cebuano
abúg dust; become dusty; turn into dust
Manobo (Dibabawon)
abug dust
Malay
(h)abok powdery stuff; dust; chaff
Javanese
awug crumbled fine (of soil preparatory to planting)
WMP Tagalog
abók thin dust; cinder; powder
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
eliy-avuk dust; of dust, to fly or be stirred up
Manobo (Tigwa)
ali-abuk dust
Bintulu
avuk sawdust
Melanau (Mukah)
abuk tiny ash-like particles in the air (as from sago flour that is too dry)
Malagasy
maŋ-àvoka dried up, dusty
Iban
abok mess, shavings, sawdust, dust, padi bran
Malay
(h)abok powdery stuff; dust; chaff; pollen; speck of dust; sawdust
Acehnese
abōʔ mould, dust, grit, sawdust, scrapings
Sundanese
hawuk drab, ash-gray
Old Javanese
brata hawuk penance in ashes?
hawuk-hawuk greyish
a-hawuk grey, ash-grey
Javanese
abuk powder
Sasak
awuk-awuk ash
Banggai
abuk fireplace, hearth
CMP Adonara
ka-awuk ashes
OC Lou
kɔp dust
Arosi
sahu dust, sawdust
sahu-a dust, sawdust, decayed wood
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
alik-abuk dust (as the dust thrown up by a passing truck)
Ilongot (Kakiduge:n)
alik-abuk dust
Tagalog
alik-abók dust (rising and falling upon surfaces)
Manobo (Dibabawon)
alik-ábuk dust
WMP Ilokano
ma-ábut to reach; understand; overtake
ábut reach, be within one's reach, overtake, understand
Bontok
ʔabut to finish off, of work
Casiguran Dumagat
abút come together, reach, meet, overtake or catch up with someone on the trail
Ibaloy
on-abot to come to, arrive at, reach somewhere (as before it gets dark)
Pangasinan
ábot catch up (with)
Ayta Abellan
abot to move forward or upward in order to touch something; to reach a point in time, or a certain state or level; to reach a destination, arrive by movement or progress
Kapampangan
ábut to reach; hand something to someone
Tagalog
ábot overtaken, abreast with
ábut-ábot continuous (as chain smoking)
abót reach; within reach, the extent or distance of reaching; power; capacity; range; distance a gun can shoot
i-abót to hand something to another
Bikol
abót arrive, come, reach
mag-abót to arrive, come, reach
Hanunóo
ʔábut reach, reaching, as with the hand; arriving
Aklanon
abót arrive, get to one's destination, go as far as; catch up (with/to); overcome by, overwhelmed
ábot a late-comer to dinner (or any meal)
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kabut arrive
Agutaynen
k<om>abot to arrive at, or reach, a destination
Hiligaynon
abút arrive, reach, come to
Cebuano
abút arrive, reach a place; have a feeling come over one; be overtaken; come to an orgasm
Manobo (Dibabawon)
abut arrive at, reach; come to pass, happen; of crops, to ripen
Mansaka
abot arrive; yield (as from a farm crop)
WMP Ilokano
y-ábut to bring within one's reach, to hand
Ibaloy
i-abot accessory, to arrive with something
Tagalog
i-abót to hand something to another
Bikol
i-abót to pass something (as to pass the salt)
WMP Ilokano
um-ábut to reach; be sufficient (until next harvest season, etc.; to be able to catch up with
Tagalog
um-abót to attain; to arrive at; to reach
WMP Ibaloy
abot-an to overtake, catch up with someone or something
Tagalog
abut-án to hand someone something
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
abut-ən to catch up with
Ibaloy
abot-en to reach, come to a place (also, of time, to be around long enough to see something, reach the end of something (as the end of one’s work before quitting time)
Tagalog
abut-in to reach for; overtake (someone) or find (someone or something) upon reaching a place
Bikol
abot-ón to attain, catch up to, reach, be reached
WMP Ilokano
ma-ábut to reach, be within one's reach, overtake, understand
Cebuano
ma-abút can be done, reached
Formosan Pazeh
ʔasay liver
Sakizaya
qaCay liver
Amis
ʔatay liver
Bunun
qatađ liver
qatađ babu pork liver
Saaroa
ʔaciʔi liver
Proto-Rukai
*aθay liver
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
HaTay liver
Paiwan
qatsay liver
WMP Itbayaten
atay liver, nature (disposition)
Malaweg
agtáy liver
Kankanaey
átey liver
Kapampangan
áte liver
Tagalog
atáy liver; arch of the sole of the foot
Hanunóo
ʔatáy liver
Inati
atay liver
Bantuqanon
atay liver
Aklanon
atáy liver (of animals or people)
in-atáy liver disease
Hiligaynon
atáy liver
Palawan Batak
ʔatáy liver
Cebuano
atáy liver; liver as the seat of emotions
atay-átay the hollow or fleshy part of the palm and its analogue in the foot
Maranao
atay liver, seat of emotions, heart
Subanen/Subanun
gatai liver
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
atey liver
Mansaka
atay liver
Maguindanao
átay liver
Klata
uttoy liver
Bonggi
ati liver
Tboli
katay liver
Belait
atay liver
Basap
ate liver
Kelabit
ate liver
ate buduk heart
ate ruaʔ lungs
Berawan (Long Terawan)
atay liver
Berawan (Long Teru)
atay liver
Kenyah
atay liver
atay bap lungs
Kenyah (Long Ikang)
atay liver
Penan (Long Lamai)
atay liver
Kayan
atey liver
Kayan (Long Atip)
atay liver
Melanau (Mukah)
atay liver
Bukat
ateʔ liver
Lahanan
atay liver
Seru
atoy heart
Ngaju Dayak
ataei heat, soul, sentiment (figuratively: the heart in love)
Paku
ate liver
Malagasy
aty the liver, the inside
Iban
ati heart, feeling, mind, disposition
Maloh
ate liver
Cham
tai liver
Jarai
hetay liver
Rhade
atie liver; plant pith
Moken
katay liver
Malay
hati heart; core; seat of certain feelings. Anatomically the "blood-eagle" made up of liver (limpa), gall (hempedu) and heart proper (jantoŋ hati, buah hati); commonly hati is 'heart' as the seat of emotion and also of one's secret thoughts; hati is used by mystics in the sense almost of character or human nature; but hati is used most commonly in the sense of active feeling in contrast to mere passive sensation; cf. 'to feel cool' (badan sejok) and 'to keep cool' (hati sejok)
hati taŋan hollow of palm of hand
Talaud
ate liver
Karo Batak
ate liver; figuratively, the seat of emotions, will, and desire
ate-ate out of one's own volition, impulse, or fancy
Toba Batak
ate-ate liver. In Batak psychology this is the seat of perception and emotion; for this reason ateate is often synonymous with roha (in Germanic languages: heart)
par-ate-ate irascible, irritable
Simalungun Batak
atei-atei liver
Nias
ate liver
Mentawai
atäi liver
Sundanese
hate heart, mind, inner self; intelligence, understanding
buah hate fruit of my heart = lover
lɨtik hate afraid, alarmed ( = 'small heart')
Old Javanese
(h)ati a part of the body: liver?; heart as seat of feelings; be inclined, feel like, want
tan pa-hati lose one's spirit (heart); be distracted, disconsolate
aŋ-ati pay attention to, bear in mind
ati-ati give one's full (undivided) attention
Javanese
ati heart, mind; core, pith; soft inner pith of a stalk; hard core, e.g. of a pineapple (Horne 1974); pith of bamboo (Pigeaud 1938); fleshy part of the hand/foot at the base of the fingers/toes
Madurese
ate liver
keneʔ ate discouraged ( = 'small liver')
panas ate angry ( = 'hot liver')
Balinese
ati liver; mind, soul, heart, desire, will
ati-ati desire passionately
Sasak
ate liver; in many metaphorical expressions the equivalent of 'heart' in Germanic languages; inside, the heart of palms, etc.
ate-ate pith of bamboo
Sumbawanese
ate liver
Proto-Sangiric
*atay liver
Sangir
ate liver
Proto-Minahasan
*ate liver
Tonsea
ate liver
Tondano
ate liver
Tontemboan
ate liver; heart, mind, mental condition
ate-na the inner part of some things (e.g. ate-na im bale 'the inner part of a house', ate-na im cayu 'the pith of wood')
ate pera lung
maka-ate understand, suppose, take to heart
ma-ate perceive, become aware of, feel
ka-ate-an taken to heart
Ponosakan
atoy liver
Dondo
ate liver
ate bula lungs
Tialo
ate liver
ate bura heart
Dampelas
wate bunta lungs
Banggai
ate liver
Uma
ate liver
Tae'
ate liver, in death-songs
ke-ate-ate liver-like, resembling a liver
Mori Atas
ate liver
Bungku
ate liver
Koroni
ate liver
Wawonii
ate liver
Kulisusu
ate liver
Moronene
ate liver
Mandar
ate liver; truly
Buginese
ate liver
Makassarese
ate liver, the inner self, seat of the emotions
ate riŋaŋ (lit. 'light liver') lung
Wolio
ate liver, heart, seat of the emotions, mind
Bonerate
ate liver
Muna
ghate liver
Popalia
ate liver
Palauan
ʔad liver
CMP Bimanese
ade liver, inner part; inside; want, wish, desire
ade eɗi sole of the foot/leg
ade rima palm of the hand
Komodo
ate liver
beti ate angry ( = 'sick liver')
Manggarai
ati liver
Rembong
ati liver
ati-rak (lit. 'liver-lungs') brain, mind, thoughts
Ngadha
ate liver; sense, mind, opinion, understanding, desire, emotion, feeling, will, intention, affection; obligation; prosperity; conviction
ate fa satisfied, satisfaction ( = 'cool liver')
ate api middle of the hearth
Li'o
ate liver
Lamaholot
ate-n liver
Kédang
ate-n liver
Kodi
ate liver
Lamboya
ate liver
Anakalangu
ati liver
Kambera
eti liver, inner self, seat of the emotions, heart
màrahu eti sad, sorrowful ( = 'small liver')
tau daŋu eti man with much heart: wise man, man with much insight
eti-ŋu have concern for, intend to
Hawu
ade liver
hedui deni-ade grief, sorrow ( = 'sorrow on the liver')
Dhao/Ndao
ade liver
Rotinese
ate-k liver, or figuratively heart of man or animal
kapa-a ate-ba-n heart and lungs of a carabao together
Tetun
ate-n liver
Vaikenu
atɛ-f liver
Galoli
ate-r liver
Waima'a
ata liver
Erai
ate-(n) liver
Kisar
aki liver
Leti
ati heart in the literal sense
ina ati fish heart; also in a figurative sense
Wetan
ati heart, liver, milt, spleen, lungs
ati wori (lit. 'liver two') lungs, heart and liver, milt and lungs, etc.
Yamdena
ate liver
Fordata
yata-n liver
Kei
yata-n liver
Kola
ata liver
Ujir
ata liver
Dobel
sata liver
Geser
at liver
Bobot
yata-n liver
Masiwang
yata-n liver
Asilulu
ata- spleen
Kayeli
at lungs
Soboyo
ate liver
SHWNG Kowiai/Koiwai
lata liver
Buli
yatay liver
Minyaifuin
atay liver
Dusner
te-n liver
Kurudu
ate liver
OC Nauna
kate- liver
Lou
karI- liver
Penchal
kare- heart
Loniu
etI heart
Andra
ate- liver
Likum
ate- heart
Ponam
are- liver
Sori
are- heart
Lindrou
ade- heart
Bipi
ate- heart
Seimat
ate- liver
Aua
aʔe- heart
Tigak
yat liver
Nalik
i-at liver
Mendak
kat liver
Tanga
ete liver or solar plexus, the seat of the emotions
Tolai
kat liver
Bali (Uneapa)
ghate- liver
Arop
kate- liver
Amara
kat-kate liver
Lakalai
hate- liver or solar plexus (seat of emotion); internal organs in general; sometimes spleen
la hate-la mamasi he is angry ( = 'his liver is burning')
la hate-la raga he is startled ( = 'his liver leaps')
la hate kuru liver
la hate malailai, la hate makilakila lungs
Tarpia
yate-dau liver
Kairiru
ate- heart
Kis
ate liver
Ali
ati- liver
Gedaged
ate-n heart (as will), the center of one's being; loyalty; surface, plane, area, breast, compound, floor
nie-n ate-n the sole of his foot
nima-n ate-n the palm of his hand
Mbula
kete- liver; chest; place of feelings, conscience (used in many expressions describing emotional states)
Gitua
ate liver; chest
ate-ŋgu yayap I am angry, frustrated ( = 'my liver is in pain')
ate-ŋgu mutu I am surprised ( = 'my liver is broken')
Yabem
atê liver
Numbami
ate- liver
Ubir
ate- liver
Gapapaiwa
kate-kate liver
Suau
ʔate liver
Keapara
ae liver
Sinaugoro
ɣate liver
Motu
ase liver
Mekeo (East)
aʔe liver
Kilivila
kate- lung
Dobuan
ʔate-na liver
Molima
ʔate-da-ya inside ourselves
ʔate-ʔate liver
Saliba
kate liver
Tubetube
kate liver; center of life, emotions, etc.
Misima
ate liver
Papapana
mu-ate-na liver
Piva
evi-ate liver
Uruava
ate- liver
Torau
ate-la liver
Takuu
ate liver
Luangiua
ate liver
Mono-Alu
ate chest, breast; liver
Bugotu
ate-ña liver
Nggela
ate liver
ate-ga liverish
Kwaio
lae-fou liver
lae-fula, lae-fulo lungs and heart (conceived of as a single unit)
lae-gu ka lia I was angry
Marau₂
rae-nusu- liver
Lau
sae the core of a thing; carcass skinned, feathers removed; meat of an egg; peeled yam or orange; kernel of nut; think, suppose
sae-fou liver
'Āre'āre
rae-na stomach, heart, liver, lungs, womb, mind, seat of affections, intention, will
rae-ku I want, like
rae nisu-na, rae ʔohuʔohu-na lung
rae hitari-a understand
rae-na e taʔa be angry ( = 'his liver is wrong/bad/evil')
Sa'a
sae heart, mind, liver, lungs, chest
sae hutohuto lungs ( = 'frothing liver')
sae-asi forgive
sae esoeso feel indignation; know, know how to, to name, give a name to (used in many expressions relating to mental or emotional states)
Arosi
sae a man, homo; mind, heart, thought; only in phrases
sae-na liver of a pig
Bauro
sae heart
Sikaiana
ate liver
Kosraean
acs liver; gallbladder; blood clot, clotted blood
Marshallese
aj liver; spleen; seat of bravery
Pohnpeian
eh liver
Mokilese
oaj liver
Woleaian
yas liver
yase-sh your liver
Sonsorol-Tobi
yade- lungs
Pileni
ate liver
Raga
ate- liver
Makatea
ate liver
Rotuman
äfe liver
Fijian
yate-na the liver, considered as the seat of cowardice and courage, hence yate levu 'coward' ( = 'big liver'), yate dei, yate lialia 'courageous' ( = 'firm, unwavering/mad, foolish liver')
Tongan
ʔate liver
Niue
ate liver
ate-fua liver
ate-loa, ate-pili spleen
ate-pala lungs
ate-vili heart
Samoan
ate liver
Tuvaluan
ate liver
Kapingamarangi
ade liver
Rennellese
ʔate liver
Anuta
ate liver
Rarotongan
ate liver of man or animals or birds
ate mama lungs
Maori
ate liver; the seat of the affections; heart; emotion; spirit, high feeling
ate-ate bosom
Rapanui
ate liver
Hawaiian
ake liver; to desire, yearn (the emotions and intelligence were thought to be centered within the body)
ake māmā lungs
WMP Tontemboan
ate-an conscience
Banggai
ate-an deep
OC Mussau
atea liver
WMP Jarai
boh hetay heart (anatomical)
Malay
buah hati heart, in contrast to aorta -- both literally and as a term of endearment
Sundanese
buah hate fruit of the heart ( = 'apple of the eye; sweetheart')
CMP Kei
wua-n yata-n heart
WMP [Malay
ambil hati (lit. 'fetch the liver') loveable]
[Bahasa Indonesia
meŋ-ambil hati (lit. 'fetch the liver') win someone's affection]
Sundanese
ŋala hate (lit. 'fetch the liver') win someone's affection
Madurese
ŋalaʔ ate (lit. 'fetch the liver') win someone's affection
CMP Ngadha
ala go ate (lit. 'fetch the liver') win someone's affection
OC Marshallese
ajaj calf of leg
Tongan
ʔate ʔi vaʔe calf (of the leg)
Samoan
ate-vae calf (of leg)
Rennellese
ʔate baʔe calf of leg, esp. back side of the calf
Maori
ate-ate calf of the leg
WMP Cebuano
báʔbaʔ sa atáy (lit. 'mouth in the liver') pit of the stomach
Malay
hulu hati (lit. 'head of the liver') pit of the stomach
Sundanese
hulu hate pit of the stomach
Makassarese
ulu ate abdominal region
WMP Iban
ati besai (lit. 'big liver') boastful, talking big
Malay
besar hati (lit. 'big liver') presumption
Sundanese
gedé hate (lit. 'big liver') intrepid; dare to do something
gede tɨiŋ hate reckless, presumptuous
Madurese
raja ate (lit. 'big liver') presumption
Palauan
ŋ klou a ʔədəŋal əl ʔad (lit. 'the man has a big liver') He's a brave man
CMP Ngadha
ate méze (lit. 'big liver') proud, haughty, arrogant
Kambera
bokulu eti (lit. 'big liver') pleased, satisfied; proud, arrogant, haughty
Tetun
ema ate-n boot (lit. 'person with big liver') a brave person
Kei
yata-n lāi (lit. 'big liver') proud, haughty, arrogant
OC Rarotongan
ate-nui (lit. 'big liver') term used to denote a brave, stout-heared and courageous person: also used when referring to or speaking of a person who is arrogant, cheeky or impudent
WMP Malay
bakar hati (lit. 'burning liver') angry emotion
Toba Batak
m-ohop ate-ate (lit. 'burning liver') become angry
OC Lakalai
la hate-la mamasi (lit. 'his liver is burning') he is angry
WMP Malay
busok hati (lit. 'rotten liver') ill-nature; malice; dirty feelings
CMP Ngadha
ate zéé (lit. 'rotten liver') take everything the wrong way, quickly offended
WMP Malay
sakit hati (lit. 'sick/painful liver') resentment; annoyance; anger; ill-will
Sundanese
ñeri hate (lit. 'painful liver') grief, sorrow, heartache
Madurese
sakeʔ ate (lit. 'sick/painful liver') resentment; annoyance; anger; ill-will
CMP Komodo
beti ate (lit. 'sick/painful liver') angry
Kambera
hídu eti (lit. 'sick/painful liver') heartsick, offended, hurt; disgruntled
OC Gitua
ate-ŋgu yayap (lit. 'my liver is hurt/in pain') I am angry, frustrated
WMP Malay
kechil hati (lit. 'small liver') feel sore; bear a grudge
Sundanese
lɨtik hate (lit. 'small liver') afraid, alarmed
Madurese
keneʔ ate (lit. 'small liver') feel sore; bear a grudge
CMP Ngadha
ate kedhi (lit. 'small liver') careworn, worried; faint-hearted; envious, jealous
Kambera
màrahu eti (lit. 'small liver') afraid; sad, sorrowful
WMP Mansaka
mapotiʔ na atay kind heart; tender heart (lit. 'white liver')
Malay
puteh hati sincerity
Madurese
pote ate (lit. 'white liver') upright, honest
OC Motu
ase kuro tau-na (lit. 'man with a white liver') a brave man, one not afraid
Formosan Kavalan
iteb deadfall trap
m-iteb to fall into a trap
Saisiyat
ʔaesəb deadfall trap to catch rats (Tsuchida 1976:167)
Bunun
hatub deadfall trap to catch rats (Tsuchida 1976:167)
Bunun (Isbukun)
Xatub trap
Tsou
cəfə deadfall trap to catch rats
Saaroa
ʔacəvə deadfall trap to catch rats
WMP Bontok
ʔátəb trip-release trap for small aminals
Kankanaey
áteb rat trap; mouse trap (consisting of a log, lifted on one side and attached so as to come down and crush the animal when it gnaws the bait)
Ifugaw
átob deadfall to crush rats or to capture and possibly kill boars
Bikol
atob trap to catch rats or wild pigs (Tsuchida 1976:167)
Cebuano
átub stone prison cell; pile of stones put somewhere to attract fish and crabs and get them where they can readily be found; pit with flimsy top for trapping animals; to trap in a pitfall (e.g. wild pig)
Mansaka
atub trap for wild pigs
Kelabit
ateb deadfall trap for small animals such as rats and squirrels
Formosan Kanakanabu
ʔ-um-á-ʔaci dam up a side stream to catch fish
WMP Yami
aci dry, dry up (as a stream)
Ilokano
atí dry, evaporated, dried out, waterless. Exhausted in its supply of liquid
Wolio
ati land, sandbank, shoal, shallow water; ebb, low tide
WMP Pangasinan
káti low tide; go out, of the tide
Tagalog
káti low tide, low ebb; land not covered by sea
Wolio
ka-ati shallowness, low tide
Formosan Bunun
ma-hciʔ dam up a side stream to catch fish (Tsuchida 1976)
WMP Wolio
ma-ati shallow
Chamorro
maʔte low tide
maʔte i tasi the sea is at low tide
OC Lou
met reef; dry reef
Loniu
mat low tide
Lindrou
mek reef; low tide
Bipi
mak reef
Seimat
mat tide
Wuvulu
maʔi low tide
Mussau
mati low tide; dry reef
poŋa-mati coral reef
Tigak
mat reef
Vitu
ma-hati reef
Lakalai
mahati be out, of the tide; low tide; dry season
Manam
mati reef
mati ibara ebb, ebb-tide; low-water (the reef is dry)
Mbula
magat low tide; dry reef
Labu
ma shallow place in the water
Halia
mats low tide
Eddystone/Mandegusu
mati low tide
Nggae
maɣati reef
Kwaio
mai low tide
Lau
mai ebb tide; reef; dry reef; to ebb
'Āre'āre
mai low-tide, ebb-tide
Sa'a
mäi ebb tide, low tide
Ulawa
mäi low spring tides in August
Arosi
mai low tide; ebb
Anejom
mas low tide
Rotuman
mafi low-tide water as containing fish; tide in general
Fijian
mati to ebb, of the tide, as opposed to the flow; part of the reef exposed at low tide
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
Hati-muRmuR gargle
WMP Bontok
ʔati-buŋálən rainbow
Kankanaey
atim-bayuŋan bumblebee
ati-ŋayáwan large dark brown ant
Bikol
atibáŋaw horsefly, botfly; a large blue fly known for its annoying buzzing
Aklanon
atipúyoŋ feel faint, be dizzy
Formosan Atayal
qesipa soft-shelled turtle: Trionix sinensis sinensis (Tsuchida 1976:266)
Thao
qcipa soft-shelled turtle: Amyda sinensis
WMP Pangasinan
ansipa type of river turtle (Tsuchida1976:291)
Kapampangan
antipa animals like turtles, with larger shells, and stronger
Simalungun Batak
antipa sea turtle
WMP Ilokano
qalaŋ to block, obstruct, blockade; seize by surprise, ambush, waylay
Agutaynen
araŋ something that is in the way, or purposely placed somewhere as a barrier in order to prevent people, animals, or a flow of water from entering
Malay
(h)adaŋ blocking the way; lying in wait to intercept, as robbers waylaying travellers, or as an injured husband waiting for his wife’s seducer
WMP Iban
adap aspect, position; to face, seek an interview, go before, appear before, present oneself; on the side of, towards
Malay
hadap position facing in two senses: (i) being in front, (ii) presenting oneself before, or waiting on, as a courtier attending his sultan’s receptions
nasi hadap-hadap-an a ceremonial dish of rice set before a bridal pair when they “sit in state”
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
adep breast
Toba Batak
adop female breast (polite word used by young women)
Sundanese
di hareup be in front of something or someone
hareup-eun be in front of
Old Javanese
harep the front, fore part; to stand before, to wish, desire, be on the point of (about to)
i harep-ña in front of, in the presence of
h<um>arep go forward; stand or move in the direction of; turn towards, face
Balinese
harep be in front, put in front; prefer; to face
harep-an before, in front of; before, in the presence of
Tae'
araʔ chest, breast
Mandar
areʔ belly
OC Likum
alo- stomach, belly, abdomen
Kairiru
aro in front of (something)
Manam
aro space in front
Sa'a
saro to face, to turn oneself; breast
Arosi
saro spot over the heart on the breast
Tongan
ʔao front (esp. of a person), presence; head of a coin; private parts, genitals
Samoan
alo smooth, soft side of a thing (the ‘front’ as opposed to tua the ‘back’ or rougher side); stomach, belly
Tuvaluan
alo belly of mammal, ventral area of fish; front of a person, palm of hand, sole of foot
Nukuoro
alo-alo chest, front (opposite of back); lagoon shore as opposed to seaward reef shore
Rennellese
ʔalo front; coastline; front of the human chest; interior; to face towards or come to
ʔago front, coastline; front of the human chest
Anuta
alo-alo belly inside
Rarotongan
aro that which faces toward the front: the front of the body; the main visible sides when turned to view; the foremost part, such as the bow of a canoe
aro-aro the front of anything; the right side of an article, such as cloth
Maori
aro front; to face, turn towards, have a certain direction
aro-ŋa direction
aro-aro face, front
Hawaiian
alo front, face, presence, upper surface, as of a bowl
WMP Balangaw
y-adi that (demonstrative)
Kayan
aré-h that; over there
Malagasy
ary there, yonder
Toba Batak
adi that (demonstrative)
WMP Atta (Pamplona)
ajjipan, aripan slave
Gaddang
aripan slave
Tagalog
alípin slave; serf; a person who is the property of another
alipín-in to treat as a slave
Manobo (Ata)
odipan slave
Tboli
klifen slave; servant; to enslave someone (Formosan only)
Formosan Saisiyat
ʔæriʃ small hawk
Paiwan
qaḍis large white hawk, Eastern marsh harrier: Circus aeruginosus spilonotus
OC Gedaged
ai have sexual intercourse (also used in respect to animals)
Mbula
-ye have sexual intercourse
Gumawana
kaita to copulate
Wedau
kaiti to copulate
Kilivila
keita <A sexual intercourse, of people or animals
Mono-Alu
aiti copulate (of humans)
Fijian
cai have sexual intercourse with: trans. cai-tá
cai to have sexual intercourse with
cait-a to have sexual intercourse with
Maori
ai lie with a female; copulate, of both sexes
ai-tia copulate with
ai-taŋa progeny, descendants
ait-i-a have sexual intercourse with
Hawaiian
ai coition; to have sexual relations
Formosan Paiwan
qadaw sun; day; clock, watch
pa-qadaw put in the sun (to dry); use a burning-glass
WMP Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
andew of the weather, to be sunny; day; sun
Bonggi
odu day
Kadazan Dusun
tadau sun, day, weather
Bisaya (Limbang)
adaw day
Ngaju Dayak
andau day (in two senses: period of daylight, and the 24-hour day)
Ma'anyan
andraw day
Malagasy
andro day; daytime; a period
Maloh
aso day
Bare'e
eo sun, day, daylight
mata eo the disc of the sun, used when eo by itself is not clear enough
OC Lusi
aro sun; day; midday
Lakalai
haro sun; day; goodday!
Motu
ado-ata midday
Gabadi
ago sun
Papapana
na ato sun
Cheke Holo
aho be clear and sunny, good weather
Bugotu
aho sun
va-aho dry in the sun
Nggela
aho sun; good weather; put in the sun; experience good weather
Lau
sato sun
'Āre'āre
rato sun, sunshine, no rain, good weather
Sa'a
sato sun, sunshine, fine weather, no rain
Northeast Ambae
aso sun
Tongan
ʔaho day; birthday
Niue
aho day, daylight, morning
ahoŋ-ia be overtaken by daylight
Samoan
aso day, date
Tuvaluan
aho day (24 hour period)
Nukuoro
ao daylight
Rennellese
ʔaso time, day, season
Anuta
ao daytime (as opposed to night), day (as in day of the week)
Rarotongan
ao the earth world, the earth region
Maori
ao daytime, as opposed to night; world; cloud; dawn; bright
Hawaiian
ao light, day, daylight, dawn; to dawn, grow light; enlightened; regain consciousness; cloud; world, earth
Formosan Paiwan
ma-qadaw the sun appears; be burned by sun
WMP Bisaya (Limbang)
m-adaw daytime
[Kelabit
m-edʰo midday]
[Tontemboan
ma-endo become day]
Bare'e
ma-eo sunny, hot
Formosan Paiwan
q-m-adaw the sun shines
WMP [Ifugaw
um-algó to shine, of the sun]
WMP Bulungan
aroŋ charcoal; ember
Kelabit
adeŋ charcoal used in blacksmithing
Malagasy
árina charcoal, soot
Jarai
hedaŋ charcoal
Rhade
hdaŋ charcoal
Moken
kayaŋ charcoal
kayaŋ charcoal
Simalur
axeŋ charcoal
Karo Batak
ageŋ charcoal
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
ageŋ charcoal
Toba Batak
agoŋ charcoal
Nias
axo charcoal
Lampung
haxoŋ black
Old Javanese
(h)areŋ charcoal
Javanese
areŋ charcoal, carbon
Balinese
adeŋ charcoal, carbon; ashes of a cremated body
Sasak
adeŋ charcoal
Bare'e
ayo tree which yields wood that is used for charcoal; the coals made of this wood and used in blacksmithing
CMP Manggarai
aseŋ charcoal
Kambera
aruŋu charcoal
Leti
arna charcoal
Soboyo
ayoŋ charcoal
WMP [Malay
araŋ batu coal]
Javanese
areŋ watu coal
CMP Moa
aran watg-e coal, pit-coal
Formosan Atayal
qais boundary
Bunun
hais boundary
Tsou
es-a boundary
Kanakanabu
ʔais-anə boundary
Saaroa
ais-a boundary
Rukai (Maga)
agis-nə boundary
Formosan Kavalan
irar fence
Favorlang/Babuza
arar fence, garden (Marsh 1977)
p-arar to fence round
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
Haraz fence
WMP Itbayaten
axad fence (made of stones, wood, etc.)
Isneg
axad fence (made of stones, wood, etc.)
Bontok
ʔálad fence, wall
Pangasinan
alár fence; to fence
Ayta Maganchi
alal fence
Hanunóo
ʔalád fence
Palawan Batak
ʔálad fence
Cebuano
álad wooden fence, enclosure; pig sty; enclose in a fence
Maranao
alad fence
Binukid
alad fence; enclosure (for animals); put a fence around an area, enclose an area with a fence, fence something in
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
alad a fence; to fence an area
Mansaka
arad fence
Kelabit
alad wall, partition, barrier
Proto-Minahasan
*alad enclosure for animals
Tontemboan
alar enclosure for animals, stable, pen; originally a three-sided enclosure; also a cage trap with falling door used to catch monkeys
Muna
ghala fence
OC Lusi
ala fence
Numbami
ala fence (e.g. garden fence)
WMP Maranao
alaŋ block the way, obstruct
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
alaŋ to block; to hinder; to be in between
Tiruray
ʔalaŋ to block the way of someone or something
ʔalaŋ-alaŋ reluctant to do something for fear of an unfavorable outcome
Bintulu
alaŋ cross-beam in a house
Iban
alaŋ beam
Bahasa Indonesia
meŋ-halaŋ to block, obstruct, lie athwart
ter-halaŋ impeded (to that it cannot go forward or be carried out)
halaŋ-an the cause or reason that a plan cannot be executed
Old Javanese
(h)alaŋ a weapon (“blocking-weapon”?)
alaŋ-alaŋ “to be in the way”, obstructing
aŋ-halaŋ-i to obstruct, hinder
ka-halaŋ-an obstructed
kapalaŋ-alaŋ impeded, defective, disturbed, troubled
p-alaŋ cross-beam
um-alaŋ to lie athwart, across
h<um>alaŋ-alaŋ “to keep being in the way”, keep troubling
Javanese
alaŋ crosswise dimension
ŋ-alaŋ to impede, obstruct
Balinese
halaŋ to thwart, prevent, hinder
halaŋ-an obstacle, hindrance; across, athwart
halaŋ-in be prevented
p-alaŋ cross-beam
Sasak
alaŋ-an obstacle, hindrance
WMP Ilokano
alát kind of cylindrical basket used by fishermen
ag-alát to carry the alát by tying it around the waist
Kankanaey
alát a tall, narrow, round basket; salt and potatoes are bought by the alát
Casiguran Dumagat
alat type of basket
Hanunóo
ʔalát large rattan storage basket
Agutaynen
kalat a basket made of rattan in a U-shape, used in trapping small fish
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
alat a fish weir which is held in the water by hand
Mansaka
árat basket
Tiruray
ʔolot kind of loosely woven basket used to scoop up fish in shallow water
Miri
alat kind of carrying basket worn on the back
Formosan Thao
qaruf knee
Bunun (Isbukun)
Xaab knee
WMP Manobo (Dibabawon)
aīb knee
Ida'an Begak
alob knee
Kelabit
aleb knee
Kenyah (Long Ikang)
ləp knee
Kenyah (Long San)
ləp knee
Ma'anyan
ulu ʔalep knee
WMP Itbayaten
araw sun
Ilokano
aldáw day
Isneg
alxáw day
Itawis
álgaw day
Malaweg
álgaw day
Kalinga (Guinaang)
algáw day
Bontok
ʔalgə́w sun
Kankanaey
ágew sun, day, daytime, daylight, light, sweat, perspiration
Ifugaw
algó sun; day
Ifugaw (Batad)
algaw do something all day long; to sun something or someone
Casiguran Dumagat
aldew day, daytime
Ayta Maganchi
allo day, sun
Kapampangan
aldo sun; day
Tagalog
áraw sun; day
Remontado
aydáw day
Bikol
aldáw day
Hanunóo
ʔáldaw tomorrow
Aklanon
ádlaw day; sun
Palawan Batak
ʔaldáw sun; day (opposite of night, rather than time measure)
Cebuano
adláw sun; day; day (as opposed to night)
Klata
oddow day
Tboli
kedaw sun; day
Murut (Timugon)
odow day
Minokok
tadaw sun
Ida'an Begak
ndtaw day
Supan
dtaw day
Kelabit
edʰo day
Sa'ban
siəw day
Berawan (Long Terawan)
iciw day
Tring
co day
Narum
diew day
Kenyah (Long Anap)
taw day
Kayan (Uma Juman)
do day, daylight
Bintulu
ɗaw day
Bekatan
alo day
Lahanan
daw day
Talaud
allo day
Proto-Sangiric
*əlaw day; sun
Sangir
ello day
Tontemboan
endo sun; day
Petapa Taje
eleo sun
Ampibabo-Lauje
eleo sun
Banggai
oloyo day
oloyo day, sun; daylight
Tae'
allo sun; day; daylight
Mori Atas
oleo sun
Kulisusu
oleo day
Buginese
esso day
Makassarese
allo day; sun (in some expressions)
Muna
gholeo day
Palauan
ʔəós sun
Chamorro
atdaw sun
atdaw sun
CMP Bimanese
liro sun
Manggarai
leso sun; heat of the sun; day, daylight; time
Ngadha
leza sun; day; daylight; daytime; hour; period of time; heat of the sun, dry season
Riung
lezo day
Li'o
leja day
Sika
lero sun
Lamaholot
lero-n day
Adonara
rera sun
Solorese
rera sun
Kédang
loyo sun; day; noon
Kodi
loddo day
Lamboya
lado day
Kambera
lodu day
mbana lodu solar heat, the heat of the day
Hawu
loɗo sun; day
Dhao/Ndao
lodo sun
Rotinese
ledo sun
Helong
lelo sun
Atoni
nɛnɔ day
Tetun
loro sun
loro-n day, the time between sunrise and sunset
Galoli
lelo sun
lelo-n day
Erai
leo sun, day; time, lifetime
Talur
lelo sun
Kisar
lere day
East Damar
lero sun
Leti
lera sun; day
Wetan
lera sun, day, daylight, to be light
ler(a)-dina now, today
ler(a)-dena then, at that time
Yamdena
lere sun; day
Fordata
lera sun; dry season following the east monsoon in the months of August and September
Kei
lera-n day, mealtime; once, on a certain day
Dobel
laru sun
Watubela
kolo sun
Manusela
lea sun
Sekar
re-rera day
WMP Bontok
maŋ-<al>gəw be sunny; place in the sun
Kankanaey
maŋ-ágew the sun shines
Malagasy
man-àndro practice judicial astrology; calculate or foretell lucky days
Makassarese
aŋŋ-allo suffer from a warm feeling in the body
WMP Kankanaey
ka-agáw-an noon, noontide, noonday, midday, daytime
Cebuano
ka-adlaw-an birthday, day of patron saint
WMP Itbayaten
paŋ-araw-an by the day
Tae'
paŋ-lu-an time of the solstice, when one cooks the pig fodder
WMP Itbayaten
araw-an put under the sun, expose under the sunshine or sunlight; by the day, per day, in daytime
Bontok
ʔalgáw-an place in the sun
Pangasinan
ágew day; sun; be light, sunny
Kapampangan
aldo sun, day
Bikol
aldaw-án daily
Cebuano
adlaw-án for it to be daylight
WMP Pangasinan
ágew-ágew daily, every day
Kapampangan
aldo-aldó daily
Aklanon
ádlaw-ádlaw daily, every day
Cebuano
adláw-adláw every day
[Kadazan Dusun
tadau tadau every day, daily, day by day]
Sangir
apaŋ ello-ello every day, daily
Tontemboan
m-endo-ndo daily
Tae'
allo-allo daily, every day
Makassarese
allo-allo daily
CMP Ngadha
gé leza leza every day
Tetun
loro-loro-n daily, every day
Erai
leo leo daily
OC Lakalai
la haro-aro tomi every day
Formosan Pazeh
m-arep beckon
WMP Chamorro
alof beckon, signal, summon by signs, call by signs, wave
CMP Buruese
ale-h to beckon
OC Manam
alo-i to beckon
Nggela
alo, alov-i to beckon
Arosi
saro, hai-saroh-i to beckon
Gilbertese
ano-a beckon with the hand or arm
Araki
alov-i beckon, wave to someone
Fijian
yalo, yalov-a to beckon
Tongan
ta-ʔalo wave or beckon with the hand
Samoan
t-ālo wave, beckon
WMP Ilokano
na-alsém sour, tart, acid
apag-alsém acerb, sourish; half-ripe
Ibanag
n-assem sour
Isneg
alsám sourness, tartness, acidity
n-alsám sour, tart, acid
Itawis
álsam sourness
n-álsam sour
Gaddang
na-ʔaltɨm sour
Casiguran Dumagat
lasém <M sour
Kapampangan
aslám vinegar
aslám-an add vinegar to something
pan-aslám use something to sour
Tagalog
ásim sourness, acidity
Hanunóo
ʔaslúm <M sourness, acidity
Aklanon
áslom <M make sour
pa-áslom cause to become sour, let get sour
Hiligaynon
áslum <M sourness
Cebuano
aslúm sour; cross, sour in facial expression; be, become sour
Maranao
asem sour
lasem <M sourness of taste, acidic in taste
Samal
lessom sour
Kelabit
laam sour
Murik
ahəm sour
Kayan
sem sour
Bintulu
səm kind of sour fruit obtained from a thorny palm tree
Ngaju Dayak
asem sourness, acidity; tamarind
Iban
asam sour, acid, sulky; plants yielding sour fruit (used in preserves and for flavoring), esp. trees of Mangifera spp.
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
asum acid fruit, sour fruit
Malay
asam acid; sour; generic for acid fruits and preparations
asam-asam-an sour fruits and sour preserves for flavoring curries
hasem acid; sour (W. Sumatra)
Acehnese
asam sour, tart, acid; make something sour; smear with citrus juice (as the blade of a weapon to make it shine); also name of various citrus fruits
Simalur
asem sour
Karo Batak
acem anything used to increase the sourness of desserts, as the fruit of the cekala (Zingiberacea), gelugur, etc.
ŋ-acem-i make food sour
juma acem a temporary, not well prepared ricefield
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
acem sour, sour taste of fruits, especially lime juice
Toba Batak
asom sour, sour things
maŋ-asom-i make something sour
asom-asom look sour, sulky, of someone's face
Nias
aso sourness, tartness, acidity
aso zaw~a tamarind
Rejang
aseum tamarind acid, vinegar; sour
aseum jawai tamarind
Sundanese
hasɨm sour, taste sour
ŋa-hasɨm-an make something sour or sourer
tanah hasɨm hard, stony ground
Old Javanese
(h)asem tamarind
hasem-hasem(-an) something sour, a dish of various (pleasantly) sour items (fruits, preserves)
Javanese
asem tamarind; sour
Madurese
accem tamarind (tree and fruit)
Balinese
asem tamarind; sour, acid
ŋ-asem make something sour
asem-asem-an fruits which taste sour
Sasak
asem tree with sour fruit (not the Javanese asem)
WMP Isneg
m-alsám sour herbs
Sambal (Bolinaw)
ma-ʔalsɨm sour
Sambal (Botolan)
ma-ʔalsum sour
Kapampangan
m-aslám sour
Tagalog
ma-ʔásim sour
Hanunóo
ma-ʔaslúm sour, acid
Aklanon
ma-áslom sour
Hiligaynon
ma-áslum sour
Maranao
ma-lasem (< *ma-alsem) sour
m-asem sour, as vinegar or green mangos
Bisaya (Limbang)
musom sour
Lun Dayeh
me-lam sour
Kenyah (Long Anap)
mesem sour
Melanau (Mukah)
mesem sour
Ngaju Dayak
m-asem sour; unfriendly
Rhade
msam sour
Malay
m-asam acid; sour; darkened as by acid. Of sour looks (masam muka), debased silver that will not stay bright (perak masam), etc.
Acehnese
m-asam sour tasting
Simalur
m(a)-asem sour
Karo Batak
m-acem sour
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
m-acem sour, of the expression on a person's face
Toba Batak
m-asom sour
Javanese
m-asem sour, unripe
Balinese
m-asem sour
WMP Karo Batak
acem-acem small sour-tasting plant with clover-like leaves
Sasak
asem-asem kind of three-leafed clover
Formosan Thao
qariwazwaz rainbow
Rukai (Tanan)
ʔaLibaubaŋ butterfly
WMP Isneg
alipatpát firefly
Kankanaey
alipuŋdan malicious spirit
Tagalog
aliŋawŋáw echoing sound
Bikol
alipúros whirlwind
Cebuano
alibaŋbáŋ butterfly
alibusbús winged large red house ants that come in swarms, esp. during rainy days, and hover around bright lights
Maranao
alimekat spirit, god of the water
Manobo (Sarangani)
eliwati earthworm
Murut (Timugon)
limumuod kind of black carpenter bee
Banjarese
halimatak jungle leech
Singhi Land Dayak
rimotah leech
Mongondow
olibobag rainbow
olimaŋow kind of large crab
Gorontalo
alinua butterfly
OC Gilbertese
nikanebu large moth
Chuukese
nipwisipwis butterfly
Puluwat
likáhenwan echo; to echo
WMP Ilokano
aliáw horror, fright
maka-aliáw to startle, frighten
Agutaynen
mag-kaliaw to yell, shout loudly, as of a drunk person or people fighting; to scream
WMP Ilokano
alibaŋbáŋ a tree with sour leaves used in cooking
Sichule
alifambaŋ kind of tree
WMP Hanunóo
ʔalíbun a tree (Blumea balsamifera Linn.); the leaves are boiled to make a beverage believed to stop malarial attacks
Agutaynen
kalibon kind of shrub with large pointed leaves which can be used for medicinal purposes; the leaves can be boiled and then the water drunk to relieve a cough or intestinal problems
WMP Itbayaten
alivovoŋ idea of circling or circumscribing
alivovoŋ-en to encircle (as troops and the like)
Isneg
aliboŋbóŋ the lunar halo
Ibaloy
aliboŋboŋ to be clustered, gathered (of people)
aliboŋboŋ-an to crowd around something or someone
WMP Chamorro
alileŋ cateye shell
CMP Yamdena
lili Nautilus shell (?)
OC Nggela
lili brown gastropod: Turbo petholatus
Sa'a
sälili brown gastropod: Turbo petholatus
Arosi
ariri small gastropod shell
Niue
fua alili coarse-shelled univalve mollusc
mahina alili operculum or "cat's eye" of the above mollusc
Samoan
alili a mollusc: Turbo sp.
Rennellese
ʔagigi Turban shells: Turbo petholatus L.
Formosan Papora
lima hand
Sakizaya
ulimaʔ hand
Proto-Rukai
*aLima hand
WMP Remontado
alíma hand
Agutaynen
kalima hand
Mamanwa
alima hand
Binukid
alima hand; forearm including the hand
Klata
limmoh hand
Lolak
lima hand
Koroni
lima hand
Popalia
lima hand
CMP Adonara
lima-t hand
Vaikenu
nima-f arm
Waima'a
lime hand
Luang
limə hand
Kola
lima hand
Ujir
lima hand
W.Tarangan (Ngaibor)
lema hand
Masiwang
nima-n hand
Manusela
ima- hand
Saparua
rimah hand
Batu Merah
lima-wa hand
Morella
lima-ka hand
Amblau
lima- hand
OC Andra
lime- hand
Ponam
lime- hand
Tanga
nima- hand
Bali (Uneapa)
lima hand
Biliau
lima hand
Kove
lima hand
Yabem
lêma hand
Ubir
ima- hand
Magori
ima hand
Saliba
nima hand
Sudest
nȉma hand, arm
Papapana
nima hand
Haku
w-alima hand
Petats
alima arm
Luangiua
lima hand
Merig
lima- hand
Nokuku
lima- hand
Malmariv
lima hand
Lametin
lima- hand
Marino
lima- hand
Vao
nima- hand
Leviamp
ləm̋a- hand
WMP Nias
maŋo sea crab
alimaŋo sea crab
Mongondow
olimaŋow large crab
Chamorro
atmaŋao spotted sea crab
akmaŋao the mangrove crab: Scylla serrata
OC Lou
alimaŋ mangrove crab
Loniu
elimaŋ mangrove crab
Nali
kay-maŋ mangrove crab
Leipon
elmaŋ mangrove crab
Seimat
alimaŋ mangrove crab
Wuvulu
alimao mangrove crab
Lusi
amlaŋo <M crab sp.
Kove
alimaŋo mangrove crab
Sudest
ghalȉma mangrove crab
Arosi
arimaŋo very large crab with paddles, found in mangrove swamps
Samoan
alimaŋo a crab: Lupea spp. (Pratt 1984 [1911])
WMP Tagalog
alimáŋo large crab
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kalimaŋu mangrove crab
Cebuano
alimáŋu edible crab of tidal swamps
Palauan
ʔəmáŋ large sea crab
OC Penchal
kemmɨŋ mangrove crab
Pak
kal-moŋ mangrove crab
Pohnpeian
elimoaŋ mangrove crab
WMP Tagalog
alimís furtive
Cebuano
alimúʔus invisible (Encarnación 1885)
Toba Batak
alimos visible for only a moment
mar-alimos disappear rapidly
OC Penchal
r-alip kind of large canarium nut
Drehet
n-elip canarium almond
Tolai
g-alipa canarium almond
Numbami
y-alipa canarium almond
Tami
y-alip canarium almond
WMP Hanunóo
ʔalipʔíp scapula
Cebuano
alipʔip person's back reaching from the shoulders as far as the waist
Kelabit
liʔip scapula
Bare'e
wuku lopi (< *alepiʔipʔ) scapula
WMP Isneg
alipatpát firefly, glowworm
Casiguran Dumagat
alipətpət lightning bug
Tagalog
alitaptap <M firefly
Aklanon
alitáptap glowworm, found on rocks at high tide
Bare'e
alipopo small flying insect, possibly firefly by daylight
OC Tamambo
vovo-mbo firefly (regarded as little devils, and avoided)
Lewo
le-popo firefly
WMP Yami
alipogpog a pagpag whirlwind (Tsuchida, Yamada and Moriguchi 1987)
Itbayaten
alipogpog whirlwind
Ivatan
adipogpog whirlwind
Ibatan
alipogpog whirlwind
Ilokano
alipugpóg whirlwind
ag-alipugpóg to have a whirlwind
Isneg
alipugpúg whirlwind, eddy of air (it announces the presence of the spirit of the same name)
Bontok
ʔalipugpúg to do something with exaggerated motions, as walking; to shake; to convulse
Formosan Atayal (Cʔuliʔ)
qalipuguʔ hair whorl (Li 1980)
WMP Bikol
alimpupúro (< R) hair whorl
Tontemboan
lim-puru-an crown of the head
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
Hari-pudu-an hair whorl
WMP Aklanon
ali-pudw-an hair whorl
alim-pu-púdw-an (< R) crown of head (where hair whorls)
WMP Kapampangan
alimpuyut whirlpool
Agutaynen
alipolot small whirlwind, dust devil
Formosan Puyuma
maɭi-pusapus na baɭi tornado (‘whirling of the wind’)
WMP Bontok
dali-puspus whirlwind
Ibaloy
adi-pospos whirlwind
man-adi-pospos speaks of the rotating action of air in this manner
WMP Ilokano
alipuspús whorl in the hair; type of cotton cloth with whorls
Bontok
ʔalipuspus hair spiral; whirlpool
Tboli
klifus whirlwind; cowlick
WMP Malay
(h)alir flow along (as water flows, or as perspiration
umpan (h)alir floating bait attached to a tali (h)alir, or loose floating line for catching crocodiles
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
m-arir to flow
Sasak
alir decant, pour out
Buginese
m-aliʔ drift, float on a current
OC Tolai
alir swim, float, drift; float through the air, as a bird with motionless wings; adrift, drifting; to run
WMP Javanese
alir-an irrigation conduit; stream of water
OC Tolai
alir-en <A rivulet or small stream caused by the rain
WMP Itbayaten
alis idea of leaving/transferring
i-alis to transfer something
Ilokano
ag-ális-ális to constantly move
um-ális to move, shift; change residence
Ibaloy
on-alis to transfer, move
Pangasinan
alís to leave, go away
pa-alís to let leave, drive away
Ayta Abellan
alih to remove or take away; to go away; cause someone leave
Tagalog
alís departure
alis-ín to remove
Agutaynen
k<om>alit to interrupt one’s work to take a few minutes to do another job
WMP Itbayaten
alis-an place in the kitchen where you keep the biggest in-alis (yams) for planting
Ibaloy
alis-an [edisan] to move something to a place; to affect, influence something, someone
Tagalog
alis-án to divest or strip someone of something
Agutaynen
kalit-an to change place or activity
WMP Malay
liwat ~ léwat via, through, by way of; step over (as a sleeping person)
Malay (Jakarta)
liwat via, through, by way of
Toba Batak
liat circling about
Sundanese
liwat passed, beyond, at an end
Old Javanese
haliwat to pass, pass by, pass over, travel along
Javanese
liwat go past, to (by way of)
Balinese
liwat pass by, pass over, go beyond, cross (a border); exceedingly, very
Sasak
liwat past; cross over (a river)
ŋe-liwat convey or transport something across
OC Pelipowai
al sun
Drehet
aŋ sun
Likum
an sun
Lindrou
an sun
Seimat
al sun
Wuvulu
alo sun
Proto-Micronesian
*alo sun
Motlav
na-lo sun
Central Santo
mata-i-alo sun
Tangoa
alo sun
Peterara
alo sun
Raga
alo sun
Lingarak
ni-al sun
Leviamp
na-yal sun
Namakir
na-ʔal sun
Efate (South)
al sun
OC Nauna
kal kind of tree with dry wood used to make fireplows
Mussau
alo kind of tree the wood of which is used for firewood, and was traditionally used to make fireplows
WMP Yami
aho a fish, the barracuda: Sphyraena sp.
Malay
ikan alu alu barracuda: Sphyraena obtusata
Palauan
ʔái barracuda
Chamorro
alu barracuda
OC Nauna
kɨl thick-bodied barracuda sp.
Lou
kɔl thick-bodied barracuda sp.
Penchal
kɨl thick-bodied barracuda sp.
Titan
al thick-bodied barracuda sp.
Seimat
al thick-bodied barracuda sp.
Wuvulu
alu thick-bodied barracuda sp.
Nggela
alu barracuda
'Āre'āre
raru pike fish
Sa'a
sälu barracuda
WMP Ilokano
allón wave, ripple forming no breakers, e.g. those produced by a swimmer or bather
Itawis
álun wave (in water)
Ayta Abellan
alon wave of water, one of a series of ridges that moves across the surface of water
Kapampangan
álun wave
Tagalog
álon wave; waviness of surface
Bikol
álon wave, surf
Abaknon
alon wave; current
Cebuano
álun long rolling wave, swell; for there to be big waves
Central Tagbanwa
lakon <M a wave
Malagasy
áluna wave, billow
Iban
alun (of sea) swell, rollers, surge
Malay
alun long rolling waves; surge or swell of the sea. In contrast to broken water (ombak, gelombaŋ). Of waves "rolling mountain-high"
halun billows
Sundanese
alun wave, billow
Old Javanese
(h)alun long rolling wave, swell of the sea
Javanese
alun wave
Balinese
alun wave of the sea
halun wave of the sea
OC Tubetube
yalu backwash from wave breaking on the beach
WMP Tagalog
ma-alón having many waves
Bikol
ma-álon turbulent, rough
Old Javanese
m-ālun in waves
WMP Malagasy
man-àlona to swell, as the sea, rise in billows
Iban
ŋ-alun overwhelm, roll over, drive back, rush furiously (as a wave overwhelming a boat)
Sundanese
ŋ-alun swim with the waves, drift on the waves
Old Javanese
aŋ-alun to undulate, billow; (of sound) to resound, swell (or "like the surf"?); also: like waves, i.e. in rows (stripes, layers), row upon row
WMP Kapampangan
alun-ʔalun roller-coaster motion; wavy (hair)
Tagalog
alún-alón wavy; curly
Malagasy
álon-àlona small waves
Iban
alun-alun waves or swell
Malay
alun-alun booming. Possibly from the sound of the sea
WMP Mongondow
olunan headrest
Palauan
ʔiull pillow
Chamorro
alunan pillow
CMP Kambera
nulaŋu <M prop, support
nula katiku wooden headrest; pillow
SHWNG Waropen
runa wooden headrest
aruna use as a headrest
Formosan Amis
ʔalopal persimmon tree and fruit: Diospyros kaki
WMP Tagalog
alupag the rambutan, Nephelium lappaceum L.
alupag kalabaw the dragon eye, or longan fruit: Dimocarpus longan Lour.
Bikol
alupag the lychee, Litchi sinensis Sonn., subsp. philippinensis
Formosan Kavalan
iRuR small stream, creek, small river
Amis
ʔalol be carried away by water so that it is no longer seen
WMP Itbayaten
ayoy canal-like depth at sea, deep spot in the sea
Ilokano
álog low land, low field; pool, puddle
Tagalog
álog pool of water on a lowland
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kalug ditch
Cebuano
alúg go down to get water
Maranao
alog gorge, canyon
Kelabit
arur stream, small branch of a river
Kenyah
alo stream
Malagasy
álo-álo fosse, ditch, precipice
álo-n tsàha the bottom of a ravine; the bed of a river
álo-n-òny riverbed (óny = 'river')
Iban
alur (main) current of a river, hence the deep channel
Malay
alur groove; cutting; furrow. With many varying or local applications: (Johore) the main channel of a stream between the mudbanks on either side; (Pahang) any channel in river or sea, and even a dry torrent-bed if water flows there sometimes; (Kedah) hollow or backwater scooped out by a stream, the main channel being geloŋ; (Minangkabau) channel, e.g. of relationship, and even of a wife "scooping" money out of her husband; furrow, beaten path made by wild animals
alur-an groove along horseshoe
alur-alur channels made by maggots in fruit
alur bibir hollow between nostril and center of upper lip
alur didalam redaŋ boat-channel through a swamp
alur teŋgala plough-furrow
alur teŋkok hollow at back of neck
Acehnese
aluë brook, small river, tributary stream
Karo Batak
alur belonging to a certain river system
Sundanese
alur track, trail left by tiger, rhinoceros, etc. in moving through jungle
Javanese
alur course, pace, progress
alur-an trampled out buffalo path' (Pigeaud 1938); 'traces, that which tells a tale (Horne 1974)
Balinese
alur current
Mongondow
alug striped, having stripes of equal width
Bare'e
mo-alu to flow, stream
CMP Bimanese
aru current
Kei
alur large water pitcher
WMP Kelabit
ŋ-arur follow along a stream or river
Karo Batak
si ŋ-alur Lau Pépé all of the tributary streams of the Lau Pépé
Javanese
ŋ-alur recount events
Balinese
ŋ-alur have a strong current (river)
Formosan Kavalan
Rusipan centipede
WMP Tagalog
aluhipan centipede
Bikol
aluhípan centipede
Hanunóo
ʔaluhípan centipede, a small common chilopod 5 to 6 cm. long
Cebuano
aluhípan centipede
Tiruray
liyufon <M centipede
Kenyah
lipan caterpillar
busoŋ lipan scorpion
Bukat
də-lipan centipede
Iban
lipan centipede: Scolopendra subspinipes and others
Cham
lipan centipede
Jarai
rəpan centipede
Roglai (Northern)
lupāt centipede
Malay
halipan centipede
Simalur
alian centipede
Karo Batak
lipan centipede
Toba Batak
lipan poisonous centipede
Nias
alifa centipede
Mentawai
alupat centipede
Rejang
lipeun centipede
Proto-Sangiric
*lipan centipede
Sangir
lipaŋ centipede
Mongondow
ulipan <M centipede
Totoli
alipan centipede
Dampelas
alipaŋ centipede
Uma
lipa centipede
Bare'e
alipa centipede
Tae'
lipan centipede, Scolopendra; their bite causes bodily swelling
Buginese
alipaŋ centipede
Makassarese
alipaŋ centipede
Muna
gholifa centipede
Palauan
ʔíul poisonous centipede
CMP Manggarai
lipaŋ centipede
Rembong
lipan centipede
Kédang
ipan centipede
Kamarian
larian (< *qala-lipan) centipede
Paulohi
ririfan-e centipede
Buruese
lipan millipede
lipa-flawa small millipede which gives off a luminous glow when crushed
Tifu
lipan centipede
SHWNG Buli
lif-lifaŋ centipede
OC Wuvulu
ali-alifa centipede
Mussau
aliena centipede
Manam
alia centipede
Watut
jenef centipede
Hula
aiva centipede
Motu
aiha centipede
Nggela
liva centipede
Kwaio
lalifa centipede (taboo for many at Sinalagu; ʔuʔuaula is used instead)
Lau
safila <M centipede
'Āre'āre
rarihe centipede
Ulawa
äliha centipede
2. all quadrisyllabic words reconstructed to date contain a (generally fossilized) variant of the *qali/kali- prefix which is associated with a limited number of semantic fields, among them the names of ‘creepy-crawly creatures,
3. the variant *qalu- is attested in other synchronically quadrisyllabic morphemes that belong to the same general semantic field as *qalu-Sipan, as with Itbayaten aluati, Bikol aluluntí, Hanunóo alukatiʔ ‘earthworm’, Bikol alusiwsíw ‘aphid’, Amis ʔalopaynay ‘long bright orange/green beetle-like insect that is pliable like wood’, Hanunóo alutátip ‘wingless, beetle-like brown insect usually found on the ground; believed to be somewhat poisonous’, Ilokano alumpipínig ‘wasp’, and Ilokano alutíit ‘lizard’,
4. whatever its origin (and this is still unclear), the velar nasal of Saisiyat ʔalʸoŋæhipan is far more likely to have been added at a morpheme boundary than intercalated within a morpheme.
WMP Palauan
ʔəmádəʔ unripe/green; (food) raw/uncooked
OC Pohnpeian
amas raw, uncooked
Chuukese
amas(a) not fully cooked, raw
Puluwat
yemah raw, uncooked; raw or uncooked food
Woleaian
yemat(a) raw, not cooked; new
WMP Banjarese
hambar tasteless, insipid
Rejang
ambea tasteless, as food that lacks salt or some other spice; ineffectual medicine, medicine that has lost its therapeutic power
Sundanese
hambar tepid, lukewarm (water), tasteless, insipid (as vegetables or meat without salt); indifferent, sluggish
Balinese
ambah weak, tasteless (e.g., lime for betel)
Makassarese
ambaraʔ having lost its taste or force (as wine, cajuput oil, perfumes, vinegar, salt, glue that has lost its adhesiveness, magic formula that no longer works, etc.)
CMP Ngadha
aba tasteless, very mild, insipid
Rotinese
afa-afa odorless, tasteless, insipid (cooked rice, meat, sirih leaf with betel chew, etc.)
WMP Ilokano
ábat intercept, stop on the way
Tagalog
abat-án waylay or ambush (someone)
Malagasy
ámbatra tongue-tied
Iban
ambat intercept, (hence) stalk prey as a cat does; block, surround and catch
Bahasa Indonesia
meŋ-hambat restrain, hinder, block, obstruct
Karo Batak
abat hindrance
ambat hold back, hinder, detain
Toba Batak
abat hindrance, impediment, obstacle
ambat stopped, delayed
maŋ-ambat obstruct, hold back, hold up
Minangkabau
ambat to obstruct
CMP Kambera
amba check, stop, hold back (as a horse); obstruct the way
WMP Ngaju Dayak
hambawaŋ tree which bears a sour fruit resembling the mango
Simalur
abawaŋ large mango: Mangifera odorata
Nias
hambawa fruit tree
Old Javanese
(h)ambawaŋ kind of mango
Bare'e
ambawa very large mango variety with a strong turpentine odor which grows primarily on the shore: Mangifera odorata
Tae'
ambaaŋ large mango variety with a strong turpentine odor: Mangifera odorata
WMP Cebuano
ábuŋ bar, block the way; something which blocks the way
Old Javanese
(h)ambeŋ halted, restrained, prevented
Mongondow
amboŋ dam, dyke, kind of obstacle or roping off
mog-amboŋ to dam up, put an obstacle in the way
WMP Ilokano
abíday to throw (a blanket, etc.) over the shoulder
Cebuano
ambílay carry something with a strap slung over the shoulder
WMP Ilokano
abígay to throw (a blanket, etc.) over the shoulder
Cebuano
ambílay carry something with a strap slung over the shoulder
WMP Isneg
ábug sprinkle with salt (sliced cucumbers, pineapples, etc.)
Iban
ambur scatter, sprinkle (as rice in feeding chickens)
Malay
(h)ambur letting drop here and there. Of seed being dropped on the ground (sowing with a round-arm motion is tabur)
Acehnese
hambō strew, sow, scatter
Karo Batak
ambur spill out, spill over, strew, scatter; cast a net
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
meŋ-abur to scatter, as rice grains in sowing
Nias
hawu-hawu that with which something is cast or strewn
Tae'
amboʔ scatter seed, strew
Proto-South Sulawesi
*ambuR strew, scatter
Formosan Amis
ʔamis north
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
Hami north; year, age
H-em-ami north wind blows
Paiwan (Northeastern)
qamis north
Formosan Saisiyat
ʔæmiSæn winter
kapn-æʔmiSan-an north
Atayal
qmisan winter
Seediq
mis-an winter
Pazeh
ʔamisan north; winter
Bunun
hamis-an year (Tsuchida 1976)
qamis-an age
Kanakanabu
ʔamís-anə winter
Saaroa
ʔamis-an-a winter
WMP Ilokano
amián north wind
Casiguran Dumagat
amiyan northeast wind, northeast monsoon; rainy season
Kapampangan
amian winter, the cold season from October to January
Tagalog
amihan north wind, northeast wind; breeze from the mountains going to the lowlands
Bikol
amíhan northeast wind, trade wind
Hanunóo
ʔamíhan northeast; northeast wind, which is usually very gentle
Aklanon
amíhan northeast wind
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kamian northeast prevailing wind
Cebuano
amíhan wind from the north
paŋ-amíhan blow from the north
Maranao
amian north wind
Mansaka
amiyan rainy season; north wind
Sangir
miaŋ wind between north and north-northwest which brings much rain
Proto-Minahasan
*amian north; north wind
Tontemboan
amian north; north wind
m-amian travel northwards, head in a northerly direction
ma-amian northwest monsoon
WMP Ilokano
amián-an north
Casiguran Dumagat
k-amiyan-an northeast
Bikol
amihán-an direction of the northeast wind
Aklanon
amihán-an north(erly)
Hiligaynon
amính-an <M north
Cebuano
amihán-an north, northern
Maranao
amian-an north
WMP Itbayaten
anahaw fan palm: Livistona spp.
Ilokano
anáaw kind of tall palm: Livistona rotundifolia
in-anáaw-an kind of hat made with anáaw leaves
ka-anáaw-an palm grove
Itawis
anáw palm sp.
Casiguran Dumagat
anáw palm of the genus Livistona (the leaves are used for roofing houses, and for raincapes; the outer bark is stripped and used for flooring, bows and arrow shafts)
Kapampangan
anaw kind of wild palm
Tagalog
anáhaw fan palm: Livistona spp.
Bikol
anáhaw fan palm, possessing fronds which may be used for hats and thatching for houses: Livistona chinensis
Hanunóo
ʔanaháw palm sp.: Livistona robinsoniana Becc.; the bold was formerly much prized as a source of bow wood
Aklanon
anáhaw fan palm: Livistona rotundifolia
Cebuano
anáhaw kind of palm with fan-shaped leaves: Livistona rotundifolia. The leaves are used for mats, hats, etc. Potted anáhaw are widely used for ornamental purposes
anáhaw mubuʔ ornamental palm similar in appearance to the anáhaw: Licuala spinosa
Subanen/Subanun
anahaw tree whose long leaves are used in religious dances
Kenyah
anaw palm sp.
Kayan
anaw palm sp.
Ngaju Dayak
hanaw palm sp.; its pith is boiled down to obtain a red sugar, and its bast used to make cordage
Banjarese
hanaw a palm: Arena spp.
Iban
anaw a palm: Arena spp.
Malay
enaw sugar-palm: Arenga saccharifera (Java)
Old Javanese
hano the aren-palm (Arenga saccharifera)
Buginese
anaw sugar palm
SHWNG Mayá
ꞌna³ palm tree: Arenga pinnata
Formosan Atayal
qani this, these, here
WMP Mamanwa
w-ani this
Mansaka
y-ani this
Bilaan (Sarangani)
ani this
Kayan (Uma Juman)
ani-h this
OC Bugotu
ani this, here
Formosan Paiwan
qanivuŋ Phoenix hanceana var. formosana (bush and fruit)
WMP Ilokano
aníbuŋ Caryota cumingii Lodd. The fish-tail palm: a slender palm with spreading leaves and numerous flabelliform leaflets, the apex of which is obliquely truncate and irregularly and prominently toothed. It yields a kind of tinder and its leaves are used for ornamental purposes
Isneg
aníboŋ the fish-tail palm: Caryota cumingii Lodd.
Kankanaey
aníbuŋ tinder. The name is also applied to many plants which provide it, as the Asclepiadaceae, cat-tail or mace reed, etc.
Kapampangan
aniboŋ wild palm; kind of starch
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kanibuŋ kind of hard palm used for bows
kaniƀuŋ type of hard palm formerly used for bows
Palawan Batak
ʔaníbuŋ tree sp.; tree shoots or suckers
Cebuano
aníbuŋ fishtail palm: Caryota spp. It is found in forests and used as flooring
Maranao
aniboŋ a palm, Oncosperma sp.; type of rattan
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
enivuŋ any palm of the genus Oncosperma
Berawan (Long Terawan)
niuŋ palms of the genus Oncosperma
Berawan (Batu Belah)
nikuŋ palms of the genus Oncosperma
Miri
nibuŋ palms of the genus Oncosperma
Kenyah (Long Jeeh)
ñibuŋ palms of the genus Oncosperma
Kayan (Uma Juman)
ñivuŋ any palm of the genus Oncosperma
Malagasy
anívona a palm used in house-building. The wood is also used as a torch by the queen's messengers who travel by night
Iban
niboŋ tall prickly cluster palms, Oncosperma spp.: Oncosperma horridum Scheff. (bayas) growing inland; Oncosperma tigillarium (filamentosum) Blume (niboŋ proper) coastal, with leaves arched; niboŋ wood resists teredo and termites; yields posts, piles, ribs of leaf thatch, split flooring; spines make blowpipe darts; fruit can be used as betel (pinaŋ) and the 'cabbage' (upaʔ) is edible
Malay
niboŋ the well-known 'nibong' palm, Oncosperma filamentosa; the name is applied also to Orania macrocrandus (niboŋ ibul), and to another Oncosperma (niboŋ padi). The true niboŋ has a thorny trunk so that climbing it is synonymous with 'asking for trouble'
niboŋ pani the hairy substance found in an ear of maize
Acehnese
nibōŋ palm sp.: Oncosperma filamentosum Bl.
Simalur
anifuŋ palms of the genus Oncosperma
Karo Batak
nibuŋ palm sp.; from its trunk laths are made that can be used instead of planks in making flooring, etc.
Rejang
nibuŋ tree sp.
Sundanese
nibuŋ betel-nut palm: Areca spp.
WMP Ilokano
ag-áni to reap, harvest (grain)
Maranao
agani harvest rice
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
eɣani harvest
Kelabit
ranih harvest
WMP Isneg
alináw <M small urticaceous forest tree whose timber furnishes carrying poles
Hanunóo
ʔanílaw species of tree (family Tiliaceae)
Aklanon
anílaw small tree: Grewia eriocarpa
Cebuano
anílaw small trees or shrubs of the genera Columbia and Grewia found in secondary growth forests
Maranao
anilaw a tiliaceous tree: Columbia serratifolia (Cav.)
Tboli
kenilaw tree used for building, as medicine for conjunctivitis (obtained by squeezing the skin just under the bark), and for a chewing mixture
Malay
nilau a plant, Cupania pallidula
nilau nasi a plant, Trichospermum javanicum
nilau paya a plant, Commersonia echinata
CMP Bimanese
rino <M species of forest tree
Komodo
nila hardwood tree with black heartwood; Grewia (?)
Manggarai
nila tree with thick trunk and small leaves, with wood that is useful for house-building; tree species: Grewia
Rembong
nila tree species: Micropos and Grewia
Rotinese
lino <M tree sp.
Kei
ai nil a tree: Cassia fistula L.
Buruese
nila a tree, the "marong" or Ambon
WMP Kapampangan
aninaw shadow; reflection
Tagalog
anináw visible through a haze
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kaninaw see something indistinctly, but partially recognizable
WMP Ayta Abellan
anino shadow
Palawan Batak
ʔanínuŋ shadow
Chamorro
anineŋ <A shadow; seclusion
WMP Kapampangan
anigguan bee sp. (Bergaño 1860)
pulut anigguan {one or two g's} honey of this bee
[Tagalog
ligwán kind of honey bee (< *qali-Ruan)]
[Bikol
ligwán bee sp. (< *qali-Ruan)]
[Aklanon
lígwan large horsefly (< *qali-Ruan)]
[Cebuano
ligwán small wild honeybee, having black and light orange stripes, nesting inside trees or walls (< *qali-Ruan)]
Malay
neruan bee or hornet, species unidentified
Sundanese
ñiruan <A small to middle-sized honeybee that nests inside tree hollows and rock clefts
CMP Manggarai
ruaŋ yellowish-red bee smaller than the ordinary honeybee: Apis indica
Sika
ruaŋ bee sp.
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
-Hani to harvest
WMP Ilokano
áni to reap, to harvest grain
Isneg
áni to harvest, to reap rice
Bontok
ʔáni harvest rice or other grain bearing plants; to gather seeds from certain weeds
Kankanaey
áni to harvest; to reap; to crop, to pick
Ifugaw
áni harvest (of the rice)
Pangasinan
áni to harvest
na-áni harvested crops (especially rice, corn)
panaŋ-áni harvest season
Tagalog
áni harvest
Bikol
áni harvest, crop
ar-aníh-an harvest time
Hanunóo
ʔáni harvesting rice with the bare hands, i.e. without the help of a bladed implement
Aklanon
áni to harvest, gather a crop
Hiligaynon
áni harvest, produce
Cebuano
áni harvest (usually rice, but by extension, other crops); get benefit from something
in-áni harvested rice or millet
Mamanwa
anih harvest
Malay
ani-ani harvesting knife (in Java)
Old Javanese
hani rice in the field?
Javanese
ani ani harvest rice plants with a large harvesting knife
Balinese
añi harvest rice
añi añi the kind of knife traditionally used for cutting rice; the heads are cut off just below the grain, leaving most of the straw standing in the field
Formosan [Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
maR-Ha-Hani to harvest]
WMP Bikol
mag-áni harvest, reap
Hanunóo
mag-ʔáni harvest with the hands
Hiligaynon
mag-áni harvest, reap
WMP Isneg
aniy-ān to harvest, to reap rice
Bikol
aníh-an to harvest, reap
Aklanon
aníh-an the harvest
Old Javanese
hany-an rice ready for harvesting
WMP Ilokano
ani-én to reap, to harvest grain
Kankanaey
aní-en to harvest; to reap; to crop; to pick
Hiligaynon
ani-un to harvest, to reap
WMP Kapampangan
antá rank, rancid, as butter or pork
Tagalog
antá rancid odor or taste (of oil, lard, etc.)
Banjarese
hanta brackish, as water; unpleasant (of the taste of food)
Sundanese
hanta insipid, tepid, brackish
Javanese
anta stale-tasting
WMP Cebuano
anták stamp one's foot
Minangkabau
(h)antak ramming down; tapping with the forepart of the foot, the heel remaining stationary
Tae'
antak limp with a painful foot
WMP Kadazan Dusun
antas take a shortcut
Banjarese
hantas shortcut; take a shortcut
Sumbawanese
antas fell trees, clear brush
WMP Ilokano
antatádo kind of blackish freshwater fish, generally as thick as an arm and more than one foot long; its meat is esteemed by the Chinese
Kankanaey
atatádo bluish white caterpillar living on the taro plant
Ifugaw (Batad)
antatādu large green caterpillar such as the common tomato worm
Bikol
antataró large caterpillar species
antataró-on be eaten by such a caterpillar
Hanunóo
ʔantatarú varicolored taro beetle which feeds on the petiole of taro plants
Hiligaynon
atataró caterpillar
Cebuano
atatalú kind of green caterpillar, especially fond of calladium and taro plants, and also found on citrus, turning into a butterfly
Maranao
tataro caterpillar
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
tetaru caterpillar
Tboli
ketolu caterpillar, about six inches long, smooth skin, bright green color with red markings
Lun Dayeh
tetaduh caterpillar
Melanau (Mukah)
tetadew caterpillar
Toba Batak
antatadu kind of large green caterpillar
Angkola-Mandailing Batak
antatadu rather large caterpillar that adheres to leaves
WMP Iban
antam strike (as a wave striking a boat); go on with
Malay
hantam slamming; slapping; bumping against. Of a man bumping his nose against a tree; (vulgar) of sexual intercourse, etc.
Malay (Jakarta)
antem hit, get angry with, thrash
Javanese
antem a blow with the fist
Balinese
antem strike, hit hard
Mandar
ataŋ hit (using an elongated piece of wood, iron, etc.)
WMP Tagalog
antók sleepiness
Tboli
kotuk nod (the head)
Malagasy
ántoka a nod of assent
mi-àntoka to nod assent
antòh-ina be assented to by a nod
Malay
antok be drowsy
Sumbawanese
antuk sleepy
WMP Palauan
ləʔúl <M scar; shadow
SHWNG Windesi
wanunu shadow (van Hasselt and van Hasselt 1947, sub nin)
OC Wuvulu
anunu shadow; reflection
Aua
anunu shadow; reflection
Vitu
hanunu picture, movie
Kove
anunu shadow; picture
Lakalai
halulu shadow; reflection; photograph; occasionally spirit of a human being
Wogeo
vanunu shadow; reflection
Manam
anunu shadow; reflection
Gitua
anunu image, spirit, soul, photo, etc.
Bwaidoga/Bwaidoka
anunu shadow
Dobuan
anunu shadow
Molima
ʔanunu shadow; reflection
Mono-Alu
nunu-na spirit (living)
Nggela
nunu shadow; reflection, shape; picture, photograph
Kwaio
nunu-na shadow, image, picture; 'shade' of the dead; one element in two-part conception of "soul", which departs body at death, and after liminal period goes to aŋogWaʔu, the land of the shades
nunu-fia to shade (intransitive); overcast
Lau
nunu-(na) shadow, shade; a likeness, photograph, picture, image
'Āre'āre
nunu-na shadow of persons or things as cast by the sun; likeness, phantom, portrait, figure, carving; a man's very self
Sa'a
nunu(ku) shadow of persons, reflection, likeness, carvings, soul, consciousness; a new set of gongs is said to be the nunu of the old set
nunu i niu reflections of coconut leaves; a zigzag in tattoo; a canoe decoration
Arosi
nunu-na image, shape, reflection, picture, carved post; it is also rarely used as auŋa, soul
Bauro
nunu image, reflection; principle soul
Santa Ana
nunu-na spirit (living)
Gilbertese
nu shade, shadow, shadow pictures, outline
nunu shadowed, shady
nunu-a to shade
WMP Ayta Abellan
anoh smoke
Hanunóo
ʔánus smoke, as from a cooking fire
Agutaynen
kanot soot from a flame, or from the exhaust of a vehicle or engine
mag-kanot for a kerosene torch, firewood, etc. to produce soot and get things sooty
Cebuano
anúʔus soot
Melanau (Matu)
anus smoke (Ray 1913)
Kanowit
anus smoke (Ray 1913) (Formosan only)
Formosan Atayal (Mayrinax)
qa-qnus a plant: Begonia aptera
Bunun (Takituduh)
qanus a plant: Begonia aptera
OC Tongan
ʔa-ʔanu to spit
Niue
anu to spit
tau-anu to spit (plural)
Futunan
ʔa-ʔanu to spit
ʔanu-ʔanu to spit
Samoan
anu to spit; spittoon
Tuvaluan
anu spit
Anuta
anu saliva, spit, spittle
Maori
ānu spit; sputter
OC Mota
anus to spit; spittle; the lungs
Makatea
nusi to spit
Rotuman
ɔnusi to spit
Tongan
ʔanu-hi (trans.) to spit, spit on, spit out
Futunan
ʔanu-si to spit in someone’s face, spit on someone
Samoan
anu-sia smelly (said of dead animals, etc.)
OC Mota
anus to spit; spittle; the lungs
Makatea
nusi to spit
Rotuman
ɔnusi to spit
Tongan
ʔa-ʔanu to spit
ʔanuh-i to spit, spit on, spit out
Niue
anu to spit
tau-anu to spit (plural)
Futunan
ʔanu-ʔanu to spit
ʔanu-si to spit in someone’s face, spit on
anu-sia be smelly (said of dead animal, etc.)
Tuvaluan
anu to spit
Anuta
anu saliva, spit, spittle
Maori
ānu (< ʔa-ʔanu ) to spit, sputter (Formosan only)
Formosan Saisiyat
ʔæla enemy
Amis
ʔada enemy
misa-ʔada do evil against; make a person out to be bad
Puyuma
ʔala-ʔala stranger to the group (other Austronesians); enemy
pi-ʔala become an enemy
Paiwan
qalʸa enemy, stranger
qalʸa-qalʸa outsiders, guests from other villages
q<in>alʸá-n village
si-ka-ta-qalʸá-n one’s own villagers
Paiwan (Western)
q<m>alʸa-qalʸa to entertain guests
se-qalʸa to be shy
tju-qalʸa other villages
Formosan Pazeh
ʔaƚeb door, gate
Pazeh (Kahabu)
ʔaləb door
ʔaləb-ən closed
Amis (Kiwit)
sa-qaɬev door
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
H<em>a-Halev to close
Formosan Puyuma
ʔaləb close
ma-ʔaləb to close
ʔaləb-i Close the door!
Formosan Kavalan
door door
WMP Yami
aneb close door
Formosan Puyuma
ʔaləb-an door panel
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
Halv-an door
WMP Yami
aneb-an close the door
Formosan Paiwan
qalʸi-an spindle and whorl (for weaving)
WMP Malay
meŋ-ani arrange the warp on a loom (so as to create the pattern)
peŋ-ani spool-rack
Balinese
hañi <A the warp in the loom
Formosan Amis
ʔaƚipaŋpaŋ butterfly (Ogawa 1934)
Bunun
qanivalval rainbow
Kanakanabu
ʔaƚimətək-a paddy leech
Rukai (Budai)
ɭiaɭiváranə butterfly
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
Halivaŋvaŋ butterfly
WMP Bikol
aniniŋál echo
Cebuano
aniníput firefly
Formosan Amis
ʔadit scab over a healing wound
Tsou
hici leather
Saaroa
alhici leather
Paiwan
qalʸits skin, pod, shell
WMP Kankanaey
ánit bark; skin (of ánes, a kind of bamboo much used in basket-making
Tagalog
ánit scalp
anít shaved close
Bikol
ánit animal skin, hide, pelt; leather
Hanunóo
ʔánit molting of animals, as of reptiles, insects, etc.
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kanit remove hide
Cebuano
ánit leather; remove the skin, peels
Maranao
anit skin (as of a carabao)
Kadazan Dusun
anit skin, peel
maŋ-anit to skin, to peel, to strip the skin off
Kelabit
anit tree bark, pig skin (rude when used for people)
Kenyah
anit skin
Murik
anit skin (of animals)
Kayan
anit animal skin, hide
Kayan (Uma Juman)
anit skin
ŋ-anit to skin, flay
Bukat
anit skin
Iban
anit gnaw, nibble, tear off with the teeth (as the skin of a fruit)
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
añit animal skin with the hairs on it, pelt (of small animal)
Gorontalo
walito skin (of animals)
CMP Rembong
anit subcutaneous tissue between the skin and muscles
Sika
anit to skin, to flay (as a deer)
Formosan Paiwan
q-m-alits to skin (animal)
WMP Kenyah
m-anit to skin
Kayan
m-anit skin an animal; peel off an outer covering or layer
WMP Bikol
anít-an to flay or skin an animal
Kadazan Dusun
onit-an to skin, to peel, strip the skin off
Formosan Bunun
qanitu ghost
Bunun (Isbukun)
Xanituʔ ghost
Tsou
hicu spirit, god
Saaroa
ʔilhicu <A evil spirit
Siraya
litto evil spirit
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
HalTu owl
WMP Itbayaten
anitu ghost, spirit
tabaaku núanitu plant sp.
Ilokano
aníto spirit, ghost; superstition
ag-aníto worship the spirits
Isneg
aníto spirit, ghost
Bontok
ʔanítu the spirit of an ancestor; any spirit
ʔan-ʔanittu act as though possessed by a spirit
Kankanaey
aníto spirit, either good or evil
Ifugaw
aniníto the word-base aníto, conveying the idea of a supernatural being (either a deity or a spirit), is always pluralized by the reduplication of ni, even in the Ifugaw invocations and prayers
Casiguran Dumagat
aníto type of spirit
Ayta Maganchi
anito indwelling spirit (beneficent)
Kapampangan
aníto spirit (Bergaño 1860)
mag-aníto, maŋ-aníto make offerings to the spirits
Tagalog
aníto idolatry, superstitious custom
Bikol
aníto ancestral spirits once represented by carved wooden statues
Aklanon
anítos benevolent lesser spirits who go around counteracting the evil done by devils or evil spirits (the pagan version of a "saint")
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kanitu supernatural power belonging to familiar spirits, evil spirits, and shamans by virtue of their relationship to spirits
Cebuano
anítu supernatural beings which do not show themselves, and do good to people
Kayan
toʔ spirit, ghost
Ngaju Dayak
hantu corpse, carcass
hantu bantas, hantu baranak, hantu baruno various kinds of evil spirits
hantu-en very frightening being which causes all kinds of sicknesses. It is a person who after his death becomes a hantuen
Iban
antu spirit, demon, or devil that can enter into men; familiar spirit, esp. of ancestor, in whatever guise it appears; the dead; any denizen of another world, the first being existing at the creation
antu palaʔ head trophy, dried head of an enemy
Rhade
mtâo ghost, spirit
Moken
katoy spirit
Malay
hantu evil spirit; ghost. Generic for invisible spirits of evil that work in darkness or secrecy. They include: (1) demons of localities, (2) demons tied to special spots or tutelary spirits of freaks of nature, (3) demons behind natural phenomena, such as echoes, will o' the wisps, meteors, (4) invisible elves wandering about the earth, (5) evil spirits associated with definite diseases, (6) vengeful ghosts of the dead, e.g. of the murdered, (7) ghost-birds, harpies or vampires, (8) discarded divinities of older faiths, (9) the tiger-spirit attached to a sorcerer, (10) familiar spirits generally, (11) the magician's head as a familiar spirit, (12) familiar spirits of indefinite local character. Ghosts are credited by Malays with planting wild varieties of fruit; e.g. pisaŋ hantu would mean "wild banana". The word is therefore common in Malay botanical names.
buruŋ hantu owl
Acehnese
hantu ghost, evil spirit
hantu rimba forest spirit
Simalur
hantu evil spirit, demon, ghost
Karo Batak
(h)antu nature spirit, lord of stream and wood; mountain spirits, in a certain sense the "owners" of their dwelling places
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
hantu ghost, spirit
me-hantu arouse sentiments of respect, awe or fear
Sundanese
hantu a certain evil spirit
manuk hantu kind of owl
Old Javanese
hanitu evil powers?
hantu to die, dead, extinguished; death
ka-hantu to swoon
Javanese
antu (bookish) dead; (archaic) (evil) spirit
Sasak
antu spirit, ghost
Uma
anitu spirit, ghost; village spirit
Bare'e
anitu name for the spirits that reside in the village temple (lobo) or in the smithy; a small snake that often stays in the temple ... is the personification of an anitu
Buginese
anitu kind of plant
Palauan
ʔəlíd god; deity; spirit; sacred object (about which some prohibition is made); center
ʔədu-l religion, belief
Chamorro
aniti <A devil, satan
CMP Rembong
nitu nature spirit
Ngadha
nitu tree sp.; earth spirit, earth personified and deified; nature spirit; all ancestors, all the deceased
Sika
nitu spirit of the dead
Rotinese
nitu ancestral spirits; evil spirit; forest spirit
Leti
nitu spirit, ghost, spectre
Yamdena
nitu spirit, ghost, spectre
Fordata
nitu dead person; ghost, shade, spectre
Kei
nit corpse, shade, shadow, spectre; dead person
Dobel
nitu ghost
Kamarian
nitu ghost, spirit
Paulohi
nitu spirit of the dead
Buruese
nitu deceased, corpse; ghost
OC Wuvulu
aniʔu spirit of the dead
Lihir
kanut corpse; ghost
Tanga
kinit <A corpse; bush spirit or ghost
Vitu
hanitu evil spirit; local spirit (of rivers, mountains, big trees, caves)
Lusi
antu spirit; ghost
Gedaged
anut <A name of a tibud (ancestral) spirit... Some say that Anut lived in the Laden region, others say Anut lived far away and did not concern himself about man; God, the creator of heaven and earth; the gods and idols of the non-Christian
Mbula
kon ghost, spirit of the dead
Gitua
anutu <A God
Motu
mase-anitu die from disease, not a violent death
Takuu
aitu spirit, ghost taxon
Mono-Alu
nitu spirit of the dead
nitu-na spirit of the dead
Cheke Holo
n-anitu, naʔitu <M spirit, ancestral spirit, ghost, forest spirit; spiritual power; any unfamiliar, frightening presence
Gilbertese
anti a god, spirit, ghost
anti-na deify, hold or worship as a god
Kosraean
inut god, spirit, ghost
Marshallese
anij God
anij-nij spell, enchantment; magic, sorcery, witchcraft
anji-n cast a spell on
Pohnpeian
eni ghost, usually considered malicious
eni aramas ancestral ghost
Mokilese
eni demon, ghost
Chuukese
énú god, spirit, spirit of the dead, ghost
énúú-n aramas spirit of a dead person that has acquired someone as a medium
Puluwat
yanú ancient god
Woleaian
yalius(iu) ghost, spirit, god; chant directed to a god or spirit
Sonsorol-Tobi
jarʉdi ghost, spirit (Capell 1969)
jaryth(y) ghost, god (Quackenbush 1968)
Rotuman
ʔɔitu (PN loan) god, object or worship; shark, stingray or other creature regarded as the habitat of a god; God
Tongan
ʔeitu-matupuʔa name of a certain supernatural being
Niue
aitu ghost, supernatural being
Samoan
aitu ghost, spirit
aitu-a be haunted
Tuvaluan
aitu family spirit in animal form which helped the family by providing omens and making predictions; ghost; fairy
aitu-a be haunted
Kapingamarangi
eidu spirit; ghost; monster; ancient deities
Nukuoro
eidu ghost, spirit, god
eidu ai treat as a totem, worship, treat as a supernatural being
Rennellese
ʔaitu worshipped deity, god, esp. the district gods; Lord, Jesus; worship a deity
Rarotongan
aitu god, deity, spirit
Maori
aitu sickness, calamity; demon
aitu-ā of ill omen, unlucky; unfortunate, in trouble, misfortune, trouble, disaster, accident; omen, particularly evil omen
WMP Isneg
anitow-ān shaman
Bikol
anito-an make a sacrifice to or hold a festival for a particular aníto
WMP Kankanaey
maŋ-aníto kind of big pink gusí (imported Chinese jar); it is supposed to throw out others of its kind that stand too near, whence its name
Kapampangan
maŋ-aníto make offerings to the spirits
Malay
meŋ-hantu become a ghost
CMP Yamdena
maŋ-anitu spirit medium, person believed to have the ability to communicate with spirits
WMP Isneg
max-aníto communicate with the spirits
Bikol
mag-aníto make a sacrifice to or hold a festival for a particular anito
Malay
ber-hantu having a ghost; possessed by a ghost
Formosan Kavalan
niŋu shadow, reflection
Saisiyat
ʔaliŋo reflection (in mirror or water)
Amis
ʔadigo shadow; human soul or spirit
Bunun
qaniŋu picture; shadow
WMP Itbayaten
anino shadow, shadow figure
anino-en to notice
Casiguran Dumagat
aninɔ shadow; to reflect (off the surface of still water)
Pangasinan
aníno shadow
Sambal (Botolan)
anino shadow
Tagalog
aníno shadow; reflection (on shiny surface, as mirror, etc.)
Bikol
aníno shadow; reflection
maŋ-aníno to reflect an image (as water, a mirror)
paŋ-aninó-an cast a shadow on
Aklanon
anino(h) shadow, reflection; image; silhouette
Cebuano
anínu shadow; cast a shadow on
Mansaka
anino shadow; reflection
CMP Bimanese
ninu shadow; reflection
sa-ninu mirror
Kambera
ninu shadow, shadow-image; reflection (as in water)
ka-ninu be reflected in
Yamdena
ninu shadow; reflection
Alune
ninu reflection
Buruese
nino cast a shadow; look down
nino-h overshadow; gaze into
ninu-n shadow; reflection
Formosan Papora
loan buffalo
Pazeh
núaŋ buffalo
Thao
qnúːwan deer, carabao
Bunun
qanvaŋ cow; deer
Bunun (Takituduh)
qanváŋ deer
qanváŋ bonól buffalo
Siraya (Gravius)
luaŋ large animal
Rukai (Tona)
nwáŋə cow
Paiwan
lʸuaŋ cattle
WMP Ilokano
nuáŋ carabao, water buffalo
Atta (Pamplona)
nuáŋ carabao
Isneg
nuāŋ carabao, water buffalo
Itawis
nwaŋ water buffalo, carabao
Bontok
nuwáŋ water buffalo, carabao
Kankanaey
nuáŋ carabao, water buffalo
Ifugaw
nuwáŋ water-buffalo. Rarely used to work in the rice field terraces among the Ifugaw, but raised to offer a sacrifice for the ancestors (never offered to the gods and spirits who want pigs)
Tagalog
an(u)wáŋ carabao
Hanunóo
ʔanwáŋ tamarau, timarau, a more or less straight-horned wild buffalo peculiar to the island of Mindoro: Bubalus mindorensis Heude
Aklanon
ánwaŋ carabao, water buffalo
Tae'
nuaŋ bush antelope, an antelope with short horns: Anoa depressicornis
Buginese
anuaŋ rare large ruminant found in mountain areas: Anoa depressicornis
Makassarese
anuaŋ rare large ruminant found in mountain areas: Anoa depressicornis
Wolio
nua kind of small, wild buffalo: Anoa depressicornis
Formosan Tsou
həhŋə a tree: Cordia sp.
Kanakanabu
ʔunúnaŋə <A a tree: Cordia sp.
Rukai (Mantauran)
uɭuɭaŋə (<? <M<A Cordia myxa, plant with small sticky fruits
WMP Isneg
anúnaŋ a tree whose leaves are prepared for the reception of good spirits, at the time of a solemn sacrifice
maŋan-anúnaŋ the time when this tree bears fruit
Hanunóo
ʔanúnaŋ tree sp.
Agutaynen
kanonaŋ kind of large tree that produces green fruit; inside its green fruit there is a sticky substance which can be made into glue
Cebuano
anúnaŋ small tree with yellow-white fruit like a cherry: Cordia dichotoma. The fruit is mucilaginous, and is used for paste
Maranao
nonaŋ a tree: Cordia dichotoma
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
enunaŋ a tree, Cordia dichotoma, the leaves of which are used in decoction for bathing a new-born child and its mother. The gelatinous substance in the fruit is used for paste. In times of famine the young leaves are dipped in honey and eaten
Mansaka
anonaŋ kind of tree which bears a sticky fruit
Malay
nunaŋ tree with fruit producing sticky sap used as gum
Minangkabau
nunaŋ tree with fruit producing a sticky sap used as gum
Sasak
nunaŋ tree sp.
Mongondow
onunaŋ kind of tree which produces glue
CMP Manggarai
nunaŋ a tree: Cordia dichotoma
Rembong
nunaŋ tree sp.: Cordia dichotoma and Cordia subcordata
Formosan Atayal
qalup to hunt; chase away
Sakizaya
mi-ʔaðup to hunt
Proto-Rukai
*o-alopo to hunt
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
Halup hunting ground
Paiwan
qalʸup to hunt
WMP Itbayaten
anop pursue an animal
Ilokano
anúp hunter: a dog that scents game or is trained to the chase
Isneg
anúp hunter: a dog that scents game or is trained to the chase
Itawis
anúp to hunt game
Bontok
ʔanúp hunt wild animals, as pig or deer; a hunter, of a dog (= hunting dog)
Kankanaey
anúp hound
Ifugaw
anúp to hunt (e.g. in the communal forest)
Ifugaw (Batad)
anúp hunt wild animals with a dog; a hunting dog; to bark, of a dog
Casiguran Dumagat
anóp for a man to hunt alone with dogs
Pangasinan
anop to hunt with dogs
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kanup hunt with dogs
Mamanwa
anop to hunt
Dusun Malang
k-anup to hunt
Proto-Sangiric
*anup to hunt
Sangir
anuʔ the hunt; spoils of the hunt
Formosan Saisiyat
ʔ-oem-alop to hunt
Atayal
q-m-alup to hunt; chase away
Kanakanabu
ʔ-um-a-ʔanúpu to hunt
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
H-em-a-Halup to hunt
Paiwan
q-m-alʸup to hunt (wild game)
WMP Ifugaw (Batad)
-um-anup that with which one hunts, i.e., a dog
Formosan Atayal
qlup-an to hunt
Bunun
qanup-an hunting ground
Tsou
hup-a hunting territory
Paiwan
qa-qalʸup-an hunting territory
WMP Isneg
anup-ān hunting ground
Ifugaw (Batad)
anup-an that hunted, i.e., a wild animal
Formosan Atayal
qlup-un be hunted
Paiwan
qa-qalʸup-en wild game (object of hunting)
WMP Itbayaten
anop-en make a dog (esp.) chase an animal or person
Ifugaw (Batad)
anúp-on that hunted, i.e., a wild animal
WMP Itbayaten
maŋ-anop to pursue animals (of dogs)
Ilokano
maŋ-anup to hunt with dogs
Isneg
maŋ-anúp to hunt with dogs
Itawis
maŋ-anup to hunt game
Kankanaey
maŋ-anup to hound, to hunt, to course (with dogs)
Ifugaw
maŋ-anup to hunt (e.g. in the communal forest)
Siang
ŋ-anup to hunt
Paku
ŋ-anup to hunt
Sangir
maŋ-anuʔ to hunt wild pigs with spear and dogs
WMP Isneg
paŋ-anup hunter (dog)
Ifugaw (Batad)
paŋ-anup that used to hunt, i.e., a dog
Manobo (Ata)
paŋ-anup to hunt with dogs
Formosan Saisiyat
ʔaelor wash away
Seediq
qəlul-iʔ be adrift (Tsuchida 1976:168)
Amis
ʔalol be carried away by water so that it is no longer seen
Thao
mu-qazus to drift away, be carried off, as by a current
Bunun (Takituduh)
qanu be carried away by water, drift away
Tsou
ŋ-ohcu adrift
Saaroa
m-u-alhusu adrift
Rukai (Budai)
mu-áɭuDu adrift
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
m-u-a-laHud <M to flow (of water), be adrift
Paiwan
qalʸudj to lose, throw away
se-qalʸudj be lost (object); die (person); be carried away by current
WMP Ilokano
ànud drift, float; be driven along, carried away (by a current of water)
Bontok
ʔánud be swept away by a flow of water
Kankanaey
ànud be carried away, swept away (by the current)
Ifugaw
ànud concept of floating away, being taken away by the strong current of a river
Ifugaw (Batad)
ānud to float inanimate objects downstream; to float downstream, of inanimate objects, of a dead person
Casiguran Dumagat
anód float away, be swept away (by water or wind)
Pangasinan
anór to drift
Ayta Abellan
anol to be carried by current
Kapampangan
añud carried away on a current
Tagalog
ánod flotsam; spread of water
Bikol
ánod bob on the surface of the water
Hanunóo
ʔánud drifting with the current of a stream or river
Aklanon
ánod follow the current, drift
Hiligaynon
ánud drift, float with the current
Cebuano
ánud for the current to carry something off; things carried away by floodwater; a person who just drifted somewhere or into something
Maranao
anod drift; driftwood
ano-anod adrift; defenseless; adrift awhile
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
anud of a stream or river, to wash something away
Mansaka
anód driftwood; be carried by the current (as in a river)
ánod dragnet (for fishing)
Tiruray
ʔanur to float something downstream by the force of the current
Tboli
konul carried by water
Kelabit
anud current, direction of flow
Kayan
añun set afloat and drift; drifting
Kayan (Uma Juman)
añur current; send adrift on the current
Ngaju Dayak
hañut be carried away (by water); deep (of sleep)
Malay
hañut adrift, moving with the current; unattached
pukat hañut driftnet
Acehnese
hañòt float away, be carried away (by a current)
Old Javanese
(h)añut throw something into the river (sea) to let it be carried away by the current (tide), especially of the ashes after cremation; to perform the funeral rites for; plunge something into, throw into, let something go down into, let something be carried away
Madurese
añoʔ carried away by the current
Banggai
maŋ-anus set something adrift
Uma
anuʔ drift away (as on a river current)
CMP Alune
anu flow, stream
WMP Ilokano
y-ánud to float; to throw into a current of water
Ifugaw (Batad)
i-ānud that floated (downstream)
Bikol
i-ánod get carried away by the current; drift, be adrift
Cebuano
i-ánud be carried off (e.g. by floodwater)
WMP Ilokano
ma-ánud drift, float; be driven along, carried away (by a current of water)
Itawis
m-ánud be carried by current; to drown
Kankanaey
m-a-ʔacúnu <M adrift
ma-ánud be carried away, swept away (by the current)
Kapampangan
m-añud carried away on a current, adrift
Kayan (Uma Juman)
m-añur adrift, drifting
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
m-anun adrift, carried away on a current
Banggai
ma-anus drift on a current
Uma
ma-anuʔ drift away (as on a river current)
CMP Kamarian
manu float, drift, be adrift
Paulohi
manu-e let something go adrift (as a boat on water)
Alune
m-anu flow, stream; float away; carried off on a current
Asilulu
m-anu to float (in the current), as a bottle; to drift
Wakasihu
manu drift
Buruese
mano drift, flow, move downstream
mano-kmanu-k go downstream
mano-n floating, drifting
OC Seimat
man drift, float on a current
manu-wen drifted
Sa'a
häu menu pumice stone
Arosi
manu to float in water or air, as pumice, the moon, frigate hawk
Chuukese
maan be becalmed, adrift; drift; soar (without flapping wings), glide; do a dance movement with outstretched arms
Puluwat
maan to drift, as a becalmed canoe; dance with rotating hips
Woleaian
maal(iu) drift, be adrift (as a canoe)
Rotuman
mɔnu to float
Tongan
maʔanu be afloat, not to be resting on or touching the bottom; kind of jelly-fish (kolukalu) that stays at or near the top of the sea
Samoan
mānu come to the surface, emerge (as a turtle)
Rennellese
maʔanu to float, drift, soar; to leap, as in a dance
Maori
mānu float; be launched: so start, of an expedition by water; overflow; be flooded
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
pa-a-laHud <M set adrift
WMP Aklanon
pa-ánod go downstream; let drift
Cebuano
pa-anúd allow oneself to go with the current, but with control; drift net which is left to float in the sea and catches fish by the gills
Kayan
p-añun to set drifting (as a raft on the river)
OC Rarotongan
pa-anu drift, a drifting, leeway, floatage or flotsam, the floating capacity of a thing; anything that floats or drifts; to float or swim on liquid, be buoyed up, drift about aimlessly, float or drift away
WMP Ifugaw (Batad)
paŋ-ānud way in which something drifts
Aklanon
paŋ-ánod cloud
Cebuano
paŋ-ánud cloud
WMP Ifugaw (Batad)
um-ānud one who floats something downstream
Kelabit
m-anud to flow, move on the current
Kayan
m-añun make to drift; drifted; to backslide; to run, of color in fabric
WMP Ifugaw (Batad)
ānud-on that floated (downstream)
Hiligaynon
anud-un drift, float with the current
OC Seimat
manu-man drifting
Lau
manu-manu to float
fou manu-manu pumice
'Āre'āre
manu-manu to float
hau manu-manu pumice stone
Sa'a
mänu(menu) to float
Rotuman
mɔn-mɔnu to float
WMP Bontok
ʔaŋab take a bite out of something, as an apple; bite on; snap, of a dog
Kapampangan
aŋab have the mouth open, as a baby bird being fed by its parents, or a baby sucking at the breast
Maranao
aŋab openmouthed bewilderment
Minangkabau
(h)aŋap gasp
OC Sa'a
aŋa to open
aŋa wawa open the mouth to speak
WMP Berawan (Long Terawan)
aŋaʔ wide open, of the mouth
Minangkabau
(h)aŋap gasp
Old Javanese
aŋap gaping
Javanese
aŋap open(ed) (of the mouth)
Tae'
aŋaʔ mouth (in the songs of curing rituals); seek, desire, long for
OC Sa'a
aŋa to open
aŋa wawa open the mouth to speak
Formosan Paiwan
qaŋelits be scorched (rice or millet)
WMP Ilokano
aŋlít be afflicted with disease of the axilla or armpit. A peculiar odor (aŋlít) if diffused by the affected part of the body
Isneg
aŋlít to smell of burning hair
Tagalog
aŋhít peculiar odor issuing from goats and armpits
Malay
(h)aŋit foul-smelling (dirty linen, dung, armpits, etc.
Formosan Amis
ʔaŋlis strong smell of fish
WMP Ilokano
aŋrí stench of fish, bats, etc.
Isneg
aŋgí spread an offensive odor, said of the armpit
Kankanaey
aŋgí stink, smell bad; fetid, rank; stench, as of anything stale
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
HaŋRu odor of salted meat and vegetables in ferment
Paiwan
qaŋeru odor of rotted crab
WMP Pangasinan
aŋló odor or taste of sour milk or spoiled meat
Tagalog
aŋgó peculiar odor of fermenting milk or like substances
Sundanese
haŋru smell strongly, as the flesh of some animals (e.g. tigers); body odor
WMP Ilokano
aŋség stench of putrid urine
Bontok
ʔaŋ-ʔaŋsə́g underarm perspiration, the smell of underarm perspiration
Kankanaey
aŋség to stink, smell bad, have a suffocating smell. For instance, the armpit
Ifugaw
aŋhóg suppurating skin disease of the armpit, or the stench that it produces
Kapampangan
aŋsad stench from the armpits
Bikol
aŋsód underarm odor
Aklanon
áŋsod underarm odor
Cebuano
aŋsúd having body odor
Maranao
ansed offensive body odor
Toba Batak
ansok sweat in the armpits
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
HaŋseR stinking, of urine or fermented eggs
WMP Ilokano
aŋség stench (urine)
Ifugaw
aŋhóg suppurating skin disease of the armpit, or the stench that it produces
Sundanese
haŋsɨr odor of urine
WMP Kankanaey
aŋsó stink; smell bad (as cooked camote leaves)
Casiguran Dumagat
aŋsó smell of urine
Ibaloy
aŋso strong odor (as of meat, dirty baby)
Aklanon
áŋso(h) having the smell of urine
ka-áŋso the smell of urine
Cebuano
aŋsú smelling of urine (as a toilet)
ka-aŋsú foulness
aŋsúh-an small ash-grey shark that has an odor like urine
Mansaka
aso odor of urine
Formosan Amis
ʔaŋsit the stink of a skunk; the smell of certains kinds of plants
WMP Tagalog
aŋhít peculiar odor issuing from goats and armpits
Bikol
aŋhít referring to the odor of a goat
ma-aŋhít have the odor of a goat
Aklanon
áŋhit smelly, having strong body odor (or an odor like the body odor; said of butter and some animals)
ka-áŋhit body odor
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kaŋit good/bad body odor
Cebuano
aŋhít smell bad like the body, rancid meat, milk, goats, cows; get to smell bad
ka-aŋhít foul smell
Mansaka
aŋit offensive odor (of armpit)
Ngaju Dayak
ha-haŋit smell of burnt rice, flesh, etc.
Banjarese
haŋit burn up, become charcoal
Iban
aŋit fresh or fragrant smell, cause to smell sweet, flavor
Malay
haŋit foul-smelling. Of the musty odor of dirty linen; the stench after the Krakatoa eruption; the smell of dung; the smell from armpits, etc.
Acehnese
haŋét odor of perspiration
Sundanese
haŋit stench of something burning or burnt
OC Nggela
aŋi emit a strong smell or scent, good or bad, usually bad
WMP Tiruray
ʔaŋet short-tempered, easily angered
OC Lau
aŋo-aŋo rake, rake aŋo-aŋo anger (rake = 'stomach')
WMP Bontok
ʔaŋtə́g have a strong smell, of the smell of urine or of the leaves of the sweet potato vine when cut up for pig food; have a strong taste, of the taste of half-cooked látoŋ (bean) leaves
Kankanaey
aŋtég rancid. For instance, raw beans, raw cabbage, green chili pepper, butter, etc.
Ifugaw (Batad)
aŋtóg extremely unpleasant odor of decaying flesh, unwashed genitals, of smells worse than those referred to as munʔāgub or munʔagutūut
Bikol
aŋtód referring to the smell of something burning, usually skin, leather or hair
Aklanon
áŋtod smelling overcooked (said of food, esp. rice)
Hiligaynon
ántud fetid, of odor, burnt
Cebuano
aŋtúd having the smell of burnt hair, cloth, or flesh without fat; smell of burnt hair
WMP Toba Batak
aŋir evil-smelling
Old Javanese
haŋi stink, smell
CMP Manggarai
aŋir rotten (of smell), rancid
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
HaŋHaŋ barking of a dog
WMP Kankanaey
aŋáŋ to call; to invite people from other towns to the bayás sacrifice; used only in tales
Tagalog
aŋʔáŋ stammering, stuttering
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kaŋkaŋ howling cry of a dog when he has flushed a wild pig
Maranao
aŋaŋ complain
Kadazan Dusun
aŋaŋ growling, snarling
Kayan
aŋaŋ the barking of dogs following an animal on scent
Ngaju Dayak
(h)aŋaŋ barking of a dog
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
H-em-aŋHaŋ (of a dog) to bark, as a dog which is kept on a leash or shut up in a room
WMP Kadazan Dusun
um-aŋaŋ to growl, to snarl
Kayan
m-aŋaŋ to bark, of a dog
Ngaju Dayak
m-aŋaŋ to bark, of a dog
WMP Ayta Abellan
apah chaff
Kapampangan
apá bran, especially rice bran
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kaap <M husk of rice
Manobo (Dibabawon)
apa chaff of rice
Mansaka
apa chaff
Tboli
kafa chaff; empty husks
Manobo (Sarangani)
apa husk of rice
Tausug
apa pay husk of rice
Banjarese
hampa empty
Iban
ampaʔ empty ears (of rice) (Scott 1956); worthless, empty; rubbish, husk, chaff (Richards 1981)
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
ampa lacking contents, empty (as grains)
Malay
hampa empty; void of contents; null; fruitless
meŋaŋan padi membuaŋ hampa winnow rice so as to remove the empty husk
Sundanese
hapa empty (rice kernel, etc.); sterile (of plants; less commonly of animals or humans)
Bare'e
apa empty, without contents, of rice husks without grains
CMP Buruese
apa-n empty (grain) hull
WMP Dairi-Pakpak Batak
apa-apa empty rice husk
Old Javanese
hapa hapa empty ears (of rice)
WMP Tausug
palig surgeonfish
Proto-Sama-Bajaw
*palig surgeonfish (probably < Tausug)
OC Marovo
valiri generic for several medium-sized dark surgeonfish
Rotuman
alahi <M surgeonfish: Acanthurus sp.
Rennellese
ʔahagi surgeonfish: Acanthurus sp.
WMP Aklanon
ápdoʔ bile; bile duct (and/or) gall bladder
Miri
fesuʔ gall, gall bladder
Kiput
pəsəuʔ gall, gall bladder
Tonsawang
awədu bile, gall
Formosan Pazeh
apuzu gall bladder; bile
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
Hapedu gall bladder; bile
Paiwan
qapedu gall bladder; bile
WMP Itbayaten
apdo bile
Ibanag
aggu gall
Isneg
apdó bile, gall
Itawis
ádu bile
Arta
apdu gall
Ifugaw
apgú bile, bile-sac (omens are taken with e.g. the bile-sac of a chicken)
Yogad
ádu gall
Casiguran Dumagat
ápdu bile, bile duct, gall
Pangasinan
apgó bile, gall
Sambal (Tina)
aplóh gall, gall bladder
Ayta Abellan
aplo gall
Tagalog
apdó bile; gall; (fig.) bitterness
Bikol
apdó bile, gall; gall bladder
Hanunóo
ʔapdú bile, gall bladder
Aklanon
ápdoh bile; bile duct (and/or) gall bladder
Cebuano
apdú gall, bile; something bitter to endure
Maranao
pedo spleen; bitter
Manobo (Dibabawon)
apodu gall bladder
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
epezu gall bladder
Tiruray
fedew bile; feelings, of an intellectual sort as contrasted with ʔena (visceral feelings)
Kelabit
pedʰuh gall, gall bladder
naʔem pedʰuh idiotic, inconsiderate (lit. 'without gall')
Narum
petew gall, gall bladder
Kenyah (Long Anap)
petu gall, gall bladder
Kenyah (Long Ikang)
pəɗəw gall, gall bladder
Kenyah (Long San)
pəɗu gall, gall bladder
Murik
peru-n gall, gall bladder
peru-ʔ gall (used only in curses)
Melanau (Mukah)
pedew gall, gall bladder
Kejaman
pərəw gall, gall bladder
Ngaju Dayak
pero gall
Malagasy
aféro bile, gall, gall bladder; bitterness; costly
Iban
empedu gall bladder
Malay
(h)empedu gall
Karo Batak
pegu gall
la erpegu said of people: without substance, senseless, referring both to speech and to actions (lit. 'without gall')
Toba Batak
pogu gall
Nias
awõchu gall
Sundanese
hamperu gall
Old Javanese
(h)amp(e)ru gall
Javanese
amperu pancreas
Balinese
amperu gall, bile
Proto-Sangiric
*pədu gall, bile
Sangir
pedu gall; anger
Proto-Minahasan
*apədu bile, gall
Tontemboan
aperu gall
t-um-eŋo in aperu look into the gall and liver of a pig in order to foresee the future
raʔica niaperuan silly, stupid; someone who cannot grasp anything (lit. 'without gall')
Mongondow
opoyu gall
Gorontalo
polu gall, gall bladder
Uma
poju gall
Bare'e
apoju gall, gall bladder (an object of examination in animals used for divination)
Tae'
paʔdu gall
taeʔ paʔdu-nna he has no understanding, no judgment (lit. 'without gall')
Proto-South Sulawesi
*pɨzzu gall, bile
CMP Komodo
peru gall, bile
Manggarai
pesu gall bladder, gall; in expressions: not thinking, oblivious to custom; arrogant
Ngadha
pedu gall
Li'o
peyu gall
Kédang
peyu-n bile, gall
Kambera
ka-pídu gall that lies on the lobe of the liver (favorable sign in searching for omens)
Hawu
eɗu gall
peɗu bitter
Rotinese
hedu gall, bile; bitter
maka-he-hedu bitterish (as taste in mouth of sick person)
Leti
eru gall
Wetan
eri a term applied to various internal organs, especially the milt; it may also mean: bile
Manusela
wolu gall
Seit
weru-n gall
Asilulu
welu gall
Boano₂
n-enu gall, gall bladder
Soboyo
n-oyu-ñ gall, gall bladder
WMP Isneg
aplāt Ficus cumingii. Miq., Ficus odorata (Blanco) Merr., Ficus ulmifolia. Lam. Trees or shrubs with harsh leaves, that are used for scouring utensils
Bontok
ʔaplás kind of shrub with edible fruit. Its rough leaves are used for smoothing wooden utensils: Ficus ulmifolia Lam. (Morac.)'
Kankanaey
appás Ficus cumingii Miq., Ficus validicaudata Merr., and similar species. Shrubs with fig-shaped fruits and rough leaves; family Moraceae
Ifugaw (Batad)
aplah to sandpaper with a rough leaf of an aplah tree; a tree (Moraceae Ficus odorata Blanco Merr. or F. ulmifolia Lamk.) the leaves of which are used for sandpapering
Ngaju Dayak
hampelas generic for trees and vines the dried leaves of which are very sharp and rough, and are so used by the Dayaks to sand or polish woodwork, knife handles, etc.
Malagasy
ampály a shrub or tree, the leaves of which are used as a substitute for sand-paper: Ficus soroceoides Baker
Banjarese
hampalas a plant, Tetracera assa; the leaves are used as sandpaper
Iban
randau empelas creeper with rough leaves used as sandpaper: Tetracera assa
Malay
(h)empelas a plant: Tetracera assa; its leaves are used as sandpaper; to sandpaper
Toba Batak
ampolas leaves which are used for polishing; also an implement of iron and bamboo used for polishing
Sundanese
(h)ampelas tree with leaves used to sandpaper or to polish
Balinese
amplas tree with hard, rough leaves which are used like sand-paper to smooth down wood
Sasak
amplas a plant with leaves used as sandpaper: Tetracera assa
Mongondow
opoḷat tree with leaves that can be used as sandpaper: Ficus politoria
Tae'
ampallaʔ Ficus semicordata, a type of fig tree with rough leaves used for polishing
Proto-South Sulawesi
*ampiɨllas tree sp., Ficus politoria L. (the leaves of this tree can be used like sandpaper)
Makassarese
ampallasaʔ tree with broad leaves used to sand wood smooth: Ficus Ampelas
CMP Manggarai
pelas a tree; its rough leaves are used to sand surfaces, and its small fruit is eaten: Ficus wassa
Asilulu
wela to file
wela-t kind of abrasive leaf used for sanding
WMP Ifugaw (Batad)
maŋ-aplah to sandpaper with a rough leaf of an aplah tree
Malagasy
man-ampàly polish wood with the ampály leaves
Iban
ŋ-empelas to polish, smooth something
Toba Batak
maŋ-ampolas to polish, scrape smooth or clean
WMP Ifugaw (Batad)
um-aplah that with which one sandpapers, i.e., a leaf of an aplah tree
Malay
m-empelas a plant, Tetracera assa; to sandpaper
WMP Ifugaw (Batad)
aplah-on be sandpapered with a rough leaf
Malagasy
ampalèsina be smoothed with the ampály leaves
Formosan Saisiyat
ʔæ-ʔæpis tongs
WMP Agutaynen
kapit clothespins
kapit-en put a clothespin on something
Ngaju Dayak
hapit pinched, pressed; long pieces of split bamboo, etc. that are used to fasten together the thatch of walls and roofs from both sides
Iban
apit squeeze, press (as a hand caught in a closing door)
Malay
hapit pressure between two disconnected surfaces, as in a printing press; torture by pressure
Karo Batak
apit clip
meŋ-apit pinch, clip, squeeze
peŋ-apit bamboo tongs
Simalungun Batak
apit pinched, squeezed
Old Javanese
(h)apit enclosed, squeezed, pressed
Sasak
apit squeezed in; squeeze in, as the attendants flanking the groom at a wedding
apit baŋke the middle child, if the eldest and youngest are already deceased
CMP Bimanese
api narrow; pinch, squeeze; bamboo, etc. which is interwoven horizontally in a fence
OC Tongan
ʔefi hold or carry under the arm
ʔefi-hi push or squeeze in between two things which are already close together; hold, grip or pick up between two things
Formosan Bunun
ma-qapi to braid (of hair)
q-in-api braided (of hair)
Paiwan
qapiz something braided in six strands (as jewelry)
WMP Bontok
ʔapíd plait, braid (as the hair)
Kankanaey
apíd plait, form into tresses, braid
Ifugaw
apíd braid, entwine, interlace; applicable to anything that can be or is braided, such as ropes, strings, threads, mats, women's hair
Ifugaw (Batad)
apid braid with three strands, as of a rope, hair
Aklanon
apíd join, attach, enclose
Mongondow
moyog-apid very close together (as two trees)
WMP Agutaynen
kapid twin
Palawan Batak
ʔápid twin
Kadazan Dusun
t-apid twins; concubine of a married man
maŋ-apid marry two wives
Kelabit
apid partner, match, mate, complement
Kayan
apin twin offspring
Kayan (Uma Juman)
apir either of the halves of two things joined
p-apir fused, as two bananas that have grown together; twins
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
apid additional, extra
Singhi Land Dayak
anak ber-opid twins
Mongondow
apid twin, of fruit (e.g. two bananas grown together)
Formosan Amis
ʔapocok the very top of a mountain
WMP Bisaya (Limbang)
pusuk peak, summit
Iban
pucok point or top, esp. of trees
Malay
pucok shoot; top branchlet; leaf-bud
Toba Batak
pusuk point, treetop, peak, summit
Old Javanese
pucuk top, highest or foremost point, beginning or end
Javanese
pucuk point, tip; beginning
Balinese
pucuk tip, point, top
Sasak
pusuk top, point
Bare'e
puncu top, peak (of a mountain or other lofty place
puncu buyu mountain peak
Buginese
pucuʔ vegetation; tip of a sprouting plant
Makassarese
pucuʔ top of a tree, tip of the tongue
Muna
pusu top, tip
Formosan Amis
ʔapol white; lime paste made from burnt white stone soaked in water that becomes powder
Bunun
apul lime (Nihira 1983)
Kanakanabu
ʔapúru lime
WMP Itbayaten
ápug lime
in-apúx-ān chew, consisting of three parts: a section of betel nut, a piece of a betel leaf and a sprinkling of lime. When it is offered to the spirits, the lime may be wanting, but it is still called by the same name
Ilokano
ápug lime
Itawis
áfug lime for betel chew
Kankanaey
ápug lime, limestone
man-apiʔ said of rice when the grains have spoiled and become white like lime (Bergaño 1860)
Ifugaw
ápul lime, lime-powder to be sprinkled over a betel pepper leaf enveloping a betel nut slice
Ifugaw (Batad)
āpul add lime to areca palm nut; lime made from snails (successive layers of reeds and shells are stacked and thoroughly burned; the shells are then pounded in water, yielding lime)
Yogad
afug lime
Casiguran Dumagat
apóg slaked lime (part of the betel nut mixture)
Sambal (Botolan)
apoy lime
Ayta Abellan
apoy lime
Kapampangan
apiʔ lime (calcium oxide); used in making cement, and as a component of the betel chew
Tagalog
ápog lime
Bikol
apóg lime (mineral)
Hanunóo
ʔápug slaked lime, usually made by burning piles of clamlike shells; used principally in chewing betel, and for its reportedly medicinal properties
Abaknon
apo lime
Aklanon
ápog powdered lime (used in chewing betel nuts); to put lime (into)
Cebuano
ápug lime made from burnt seashells; make lime
Maranao
apog lime
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
apug lime
Mansaka
apog lime (for betel nut chew)
Dumpas
apug lime
Kadazan Dusun
t-apu chalk, lime
Abai Sembuak
afug lime (for betel)
Dali'
apor lime
Kenyah
apo lime; sago flour
Murik
apo lime used with betel chew
Kayan
apoh slaked lime
Lawangan
apoi lime
Simalur
axul lime, calcium
Old Javanese
(h)apū lime
ma-hapū with (having) lime
Balinese
apuh lime, chalk (for betel)
Sasak
apur lime, mortar, plaster
Proto-Sangiric
*apuR lime
Sangir
apuʔ lime made from burnt coral limestone
Proto-Minahasan
*apuh lime
Tontemboan
apu lime, calcium
ma-apu turn to lime, turn to powder
Tonsawang
awuh lime
Muna
ghefi lime
Palauan
ʔáus lime for betel nut
Chamorro
afok lime, birdlime, limestone (soft), quicklime
CMP Bimanese
afu chalk, lime
afu mama kai lime used in betel chew
Komodo
apo chalk
Rembong
apoʔ lime, calcium
Ngadha
apo poorer grade, grainy chalk or lime
Sika
apur lime, calcium
Lamaholot
apu lime, calcium
Kédang
apur lime
Hawu
ao lime, calcium
Tetun
ahu lime, calcium
tunu ahu cook or make lime
huu ahu (to blow lime) an animist practice for putting people to sleep, who do not wish to be clairvoyant (possibly hypnosis)
Erai
aʔur lime
Kisar
auru lime, calcium
Leti
āru lime, calcium
Wetan
airi lime; to put lime on
Selaru
aur lime, calcium
Yamdena
yafur lime, calcium
Fordata
yafur lime, calcium; very white, of the flesh of the sago palm
Kei
yafur lime, calcium
yafur avlād chalk
yafur wāt small calabash, Lagenaria idolatrica, used as a lime container with the betel chew
enawun yafur burn lime
Watubela
kaful lime
Proto-Ambon
*apur lime, chalk
Laha
aur lime
Buruese
apu lime
Kayeli
ahule lime, chalk
SHWNG Kowiai/Koiwai
lofor chalk; lime
Buli
yafi lime, calcium
Dusner
aper lime
Ron
afer chalk, lime
Numfor
afer lime, calcium
OC Nauna
kɨh lime
Lou
kɔp lime, lime gourd
Penchal
kɨp lime
Lenkau
kop lime
Kuruti
ah lime
Drehet
ah lime (for betel)
Likum
ah lime
Wuvulu
afu lime in lime gourd (cp. kakaweʔi 'lime not in lime gourd')
Bali (Uneapa)
kavu lime for betel chew
Lakalai
la-havu lime for chewing with areca nut, made from clam shell
Manam
au lime
Mbula
kou coral/lime
Gitua
avu lime (calcium oxide)
Numbami
awila lime (for betelnut)
Motu
ahu lime (quick or slack)
Pokau
avu lime
Tubetube
kaul-i lime for betel nut
Nggela
avu lime holder; slaked lime
Kwaio
fou-lafu white powdery stone
lafu-lafu-a white surface, glistening white
laful-ia sprinkle with lime in ritual
Lau
safu lime, used in magic; smear with lime
safu-safu native tobacco (first obtained from Savo Island)
'Āre'āre
sahu a lime, used in magic, on which incantations are done and put over the doorway outside on the ridgepole or blown around in the house; used as a protection for the house, the inhabitants and the belongings, against evil spirits, and sickness
suru sahu put or blow the lime over the doorway, etc.
Sa'a
sähu lime, lime gourd; magic lime put over doorway outside on the ridge-pole with an incantation, a charm to protect the house and its belongings; used in black magic
Arosi
ahu branching coral
Bauro
ahu lime
Southeast Ambrym
e-ah lime (prepared from dead coral)
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
meŋ-apog make lime out of shells
Old Javanese
maŋ-hapū make lime
Sangir
maŋ-apuʔ use lime in the betel chew; burn lime
Palauan
məŋ-áus sprinkle lime on
WMP Isneg
max-ápug prepare betel for chewing
Casiguran Dumagat
meg-apog put lime in one's mouth (to add to the betel nut chew)
Cebuano
mag-ápug make lime for betel chewing
Tontemboan
ma-apu add lime to the betel chew
WMP Itawis
paŋ-apúx-ān receptacle for lime
Sasak
peŋ-apo-n lime pot in the betel kit
Tontemboan
peŋ-apu-an lime case; also the name of the gourd formerly used to make lime cases
WMP Ilokano
pag-apúg-an kind of very small báŋa or earthenware jar used by chewers of betel nut for holding lime; any receptacle for lime
Isneg
ag-apúx-an receptacle for lime. It may be a small box made of wood or the horn of a carabao, a small glass bottle, a deer horn or the fruit of the limbokbókaw tree, but it usually consists in the shell of a small bottle gourd
[Tiruray
fag-aful-an the lime container in a brass betel box]
Javanese
p-apo-n container for slaked lime
WMP Ifugaw
pun-apúl-an lime-tube
Hanunóo
ʔapug-án general term for a lime container, whether of bamboo, shell, wood, a crab claw, or other material
Aklanon
apog-án lime box, case used for storing lime powder
Old Javanese
apon lime (constituent of betel quid)
WMP Bikol
após cigarette butt
Maranao
apos tired, exhausted
Iban
apus complete, finish, end
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
apus right through, throughout
Malay
hapus expunging, wiping off; effacing
m-ampus to die (vulgar); be wiped out; of animals dying
Toba Batak
apus wiped out, obliterated
Simalungun Batak
apus brushing over, sweeping
Sundanese
apus easily go out, extinguished (fire)
Mandar
apus wipe off, erase
CMP Manggarai
ampus exterminate, destroy, wipe out (as a house by fire, chickens by some cause, etc.)
Formosan Saisiyat
ʔæʔæy leg and foot (human)
Seediq (Truku)
qaqai foot (especially of humans)
WMP Itbayaten
ayi foot, leg, paw
Sambal (Bolinaw)
aːyi foot, leg
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kakay foot
Palawan Batak
ʔaʔay foot, leg (Reid 1971)
Maguindanao
ai foot, leg
Bintulu
ai foot
Moken
kakay leg, foot
Nias
ahe foot, fruit stalk (of palms)
Enggano
e-ae foot
Proto-Minahasan
*aʔe foot, leg
Banggai
ai foot, leg
Wolio
ae leg, foot, paw, lower course (of a river), river-mouth
Bonerate
ae foot/leg
Muna
ghaghe leg, foot, mouth (of a river)
CMP Tetun
ai-n leg, foot
Galoli
ei-r foot/leg
Kisar
ei leg, foot
Ujir
ai leg, foot
Elat
ai-n leg, foot
Masiwang
yai-n leg, foot
Kamarian
ai leg/foot
Wahai
ai foot
Laha
ei- foot/leg
Hitu
ai leg, foot
Batu Merah
ai-va foot
Morella
ai-ka foot
SHWNG Wandamen
ae foot
Windesi
ae foot
Waropen
e foot
Pom
ai foot
Marau₁
ae foot/leg
Ansus
ae foot
Papuma
ae foot
Serui-Laut
ae foot
OC Seimat
ae leg, foot
Kaniet
ae- leg, foot
Yapese
qaay his leg/foot
Lihir
kake- leg
Tanga
keke leg, foot
Arop
ke- foot, leg
Lusi
ahe leg, foot
Kove
ahe foot, leg
Gitua
age leg, foot
Numbami
ae leg, foot
Gabadi
ae leg
Dobuan
ʔae-na leg, foot
Tubetube
kae-kae leg, foot
Marau₂
aʔe- foot, leg
WMP Kankanaey
alimaoŋ civet, civet cat
Ngaju Dayak
harimauŋ leopard
Ma'anyan
harimauŋ leopard
Samihim
rimaʔuŋ leopard
Jarai
remoŋ tiger
WMP Ilokano
arinuán kind of tame bee
Kelabit
b-erenuan kind of small bee
Ngaju Dayak
bitik ñuan kind of small gray ant
Iban
(re)ñuan kind of small bee, often kept under eaves in hives (tikoŋ of hollowed logs; honey is good, but inferior to that of the large wild mañiʔ
Singhi Land Dayak
ñowan house bee
Toba Batak
harinuan large wild bee (< *kari-ñuan)
OC Nauna
alit the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum
Lou
kerit the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum
Penchal
alit the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum
elt-i to caulk
Pak
ehir the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum
Loniu
eit the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum
Nali
n-alit the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum
Ere
arit the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum
Titan
alit the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum
Leipon
yerit the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum
Sori
ahiʔ the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum
Lindrou
alis the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum
Bipi
alik the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum
Mussau
arita the putty nut: Parinarium laurinum
WMP Maranao
aroqan mudfish: Ophiocephalus striatus Bloch; prepare or clean mudfish
aroqan-aq scaling board
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
eruʔan mudfish
Malay
haruan mudfish
WMP Palawano
aga tree sp.; barkcloth made from the bark of the aga tree
Iban
araʔ parasite fig
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
ara generic for banyans: Ficus benjamina and F. retusa
Old Javanese
(h)ara a particular kind of tree (of the ficus family)
Balinese
aha fig
Sasak
ara kind of fig tree
Sangir
aha kind of wild fig tree
Mongondow
aga a tree of no particular use
CMP Komodo
ara fig tree
Manggarai
ara various trees, Ficus spp.
Ngadha
ara kind of fig or banyan tree
Sika
ʔara fig tree
Buruese
aha-t a tree
OC Gedaged
az fence
Motu
ara fence of upright sticks
Bugotu
ara-ara fish fence of coconut leaves
Tongan
ʔā fence, wall; enclosure, pen
Rennellese
ʔaa wall, fence, enclosure; to build a fence, wall, or enclosure; to surround
WMP Ilokano
agáma large white crabs breeding in reefs
Isneg
axamā kind of small crab
Bontok
ʔagma crab
Casiguran Dumagat
agima ocean crab
Pangasinan
alamá small crabs
Old Javanese
harama edible marine creature
Formosan Kavalan
m-iRaw to rob
iRaw-an be seized by, taken by force
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
H-em-a-HaRaw take by force, snatch away
m-a-HaRa-HaRaw to fight for (as for the ground)
HaRaw-i snatch it!
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
agew grab, snatch, steal, run off with someone's spouse for a long time or indefinite period
Kapampangan
ayaw scramble for something; rob in such a manner (Bergaño 1860)
Tagalog
ágaw sudden snatching away; deprivation (of property or the like); interposition in conversation (used in narratives)
agaw-án snatching (things) away from each other; competition
Bikol
mag-ágaw to snatch
maki-ágaw jostled, scramble for, push your way ahead
Hanunóo
ʔágaw grasping, grabbing at (something)
mag-mag-ʔar-agáw-an grab at (plural,intensive)
Aklanon
ágaw grab, take, seize, snatch, get (without being one's due)
pa-ágaw throw things for others to catch
ae-agaw-án (< *ar-agaw-an make a scramble for (in order to take or get)
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kalaw snatch away
Hiligaynon
mag-ágaw grab, seize, take by force, usurp
Cebuano
ágaw take something away from someone (as a toy from a child)
agáw-an fond of snatching
babáyi-ŋ agaw-ag bána a woman that is a husband-snatcher
Maranao
agaw vie; go toward; seek protection; snatch away
Subanen/Subanun
gagaw to snatch
Binukid
agaw grab, seize, snatch, take (something) away from (someone)
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
aɣew seize; grab; illegally take possession of
Mansaka
agaw take that which belongs to another (wife, land, etc.)
Kelabit
aro snatching'; se-ng-aro 'fight over something
Proto-Sangiric
*aRaw rob, snatch away
Sangir
aho stolen goods, booty, loot
Mongondow
moko-agow able to, or dare to rob or to take by force
o-agow-an what is usually taken in robbery: booty, loot
WMP Bikol
maŋ-ágaw go around snatching things
Kelabit
ŋ-aro to snatch
Sangir
maŋ-aho take away from someone, rob
Mongondow
moŋ-agow rob, abduct, take away by force
WMP Ilokano
agáw-en snatch away, off; carry off, take away by violence; obtain by robbing
Bikol
agáw-on be snatched
Hanunóo
ʔagáw-un be grabbed at, be snatched
Hiligaynon
agáw-un be grabbed, seized, taken by force
Formosan Kavalan
irem pangolin, anteater
Saisiyat
ʔæLəm pangolin, anteater
Atayal
qom pangolin, anteater
Seediq
ʔaruŋ pangolin, anteater
Pazeh
axem pangolin, anteater
Amis
ʔalem anteater with long tongue: Manis tricupis
Thao
qalhum pangolin, scaly anteater: Manis pentadactyla
Bunun
qalum pangolin, anteater
ʔarəmə pangolin, anteater
Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
HaRem pangolin, anteater
Paiwan
qam pangolin, anteater
q-in-am-an pangolin's hole or den
WMP Basap
arəm pangolin
Berawan (Long Jegan)
akem pangolin, anteater
Berawan (Batu Belah)
am pangolin, anteater
Kenyah (Long Anap)
aam pangolin, anteater
Penan (Long Lamai)
aham pangolin, anteater
Wahau
ham pangolin, scaly anteater
Gaai
ham pangolin, scaly anteater
Kelai
ham pangolin, scaly anteater
Mei Lan Modang
ham pangolin, scaly anteater
Woq Helaq Modang
ham pangolin, scaly anteater
Long Gelat Modang
ham pangolin, scaly anteater
Kiput
arəm pangolin, anteater
Melanau (Mukah)
aam pangolin, anteater
Bukat
ayəm pangolin, anteater
Lahanan
həm pangolin, anteater
Katingan
ahem pangolin, anteater
Ma'anyan
ayem pangolin, anteater
Dusun Witu
ayem pangolin, scaly anteater
(2) both Borneo and Taiwan were independently settled from some other area or areas where the pangolin was found,
(3) Austronesian speakers moved south rapidly enough to encounter the new species of pangolin before they had lost their recollection of the Manis pentadactyla, and hence were able to transfer the old name to the new species.
Formosan Atayal (Mayrinax)
qaglu a plant: Phragmites longivalis
Amis
ʔardo swamp grass, used in making things
WMP Hanunóo
ʔaynu a plant: Phragmites australis (Madulid 2001) (Formosan only)
Formosan Atayal (Mayrinax)
qagiraŋ bean, pea
Pazeh
xaidaŋ <M beans
maxa-xaidaŋ to have smallpox
Bunun
qalidaŋ pigeon peas
Tsou
recŋi pigeon peas
Kanakanabu
ʔaricaŋ pigeon peas
Saaroa
ʔarisaŋ pigeon peas
Siraya
agisaŋ broad beans
Paiwan
qarizaŋ string beans (Formosan only)
Formosan Saisiyat
ʔæL-ʔæLiw dry
Thao
qalhiw dryness
ma-qalhiw dry (as clothes that have been washed, a riverbed, etc.)
miŋ-qalhiw become dry, dry up
Bunun
ma-qaliv dry, as a riverbed or fish that have been dried for preservation
WMP Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
adsam <A black vine used in ornamenting woven baskets
Mansaka
agsam kind of vine
Iban
resam a fern: Gleichenia sp.
Malay
resam forest fern, of which some parts are like whalebone, and make Malay pens: Gleichenia linearis
Acehnese
rɨsam fern sp.
Karo Batak
resam tough fern which grows on the high plateau
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
arsam kind of upright fern
Toba Batak
arsam fern sp.
Minangkabau
ra(n)sam a fern: Gleichenia linearis
Proto-Sangiric
*Rəsam fern sp.
Sangir
hesaŋ useful type of moss that grows to a height of over two feet. The light-green young plants resemble small fir trees, with cylindrical stalks filled with hairs or soft spines. The plant later loses its pyramidal form and comes to resemble the flatter mosses. It grows in close association with Imperata cylindrica wherever there is enough moisture. Also called hesaŋ lumuʔ in contradistinction with hesaŋ or hesaŋ eseʔ; the latter belongs with the ginto, and is a climbing fern, much used for wicker chairs, etc.
OC Tanga
aːsem the Lygodium creeper; a circlet of this creeper was placed around a widow's ankle and called pan-ta:m-en-bo 'leaf-which makes taboo-the eating of-pig'; a belt of the vine, worn by women; a double bow was made at the hip and within each loop of the bow a bundle of scented leaves was placed, and the two loops were pulled tight
Lakalai
la-hara plant used for wrapping of coiled basket: Lygodium circinnatum
Mono-Alu
asama a creeper species; to use asama
Roviana
asama a trailing fern much used for lashing canoes, etc.: Lygodium trifurcatum Baker
Nggela
aha species of creeper used for string, smaller than lape
Kwaio
lata vine used in making canoes
Lau
sata species of climbing fern, used for tying canoes
'Āre'āre
rata a very strong liana, used especially to sew canoe planks
Sa'a
sata a climbing fern, very strong, used for tying
Fijian
caca a fern: Acrostichum aureum, Pteridaceae
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
HaRsem sour
WMP Kalamian Tagbanwa
kalsem sour
Palawan Batak
ʔagsem sour (Reid 1971)
Palawano
egsem acid, sour
WMP Aborlan Tagbanwa
ma-agsem sour
Chamorro
ma-ʔaksom sour, acid, acidulous, tart
WMP Isneg
agtá Negrito
Arta
arta self designation used by a group of Negritos in Quirino Province, Northern Luzon (Reid 1989:47)
Ifugaw
altá pygmies of the Philippines, called Negritos by the Spaniards
Casiguran Dumagat
ágta a Negrito person; what the Dumagat people refer to themselves as; term for any dark-skinned person with kinky hair; to speak in the Dumagat language
Ayta Abellan
ayta man; human being
Kapampangan
ayta Negrito (Garvan 1964:9)
Tagalog
agtá short black people, Negritos
Remontado
áta person
Samal
ata slave
Bidayuh (Bukar-Sadong)
ata people in general
Simalur
ata person, human being
Nias (Southern)
ata person, human being; ancestor
Proto-Minahasan
*ata slave
Tondano
ata slave
Tontemboan
ata slave
ma-ata make a slave of someone, treat as a slave
meŋ-ata possess slaves
Mongondow
ata slave; often used to mean 'servant' in contrast with more prominent people
kog-ata possess slaves
toŋg-ata-an make a slave of someone
ata naa this slave, this servant = I
Gorontalo
wato slave, servant
Banggai
ata slave
maŋ-ata-i possess or obtain slaves
Mori Atas
ata slave
Wawonii
ata slave
Buginese
ata slave
Makassarese
ata slave, servant, subject of a ruler; still present in polite expressions
ata-nta your servant (used by women or children toward persons deserving respect)
Muna
ghata slave
Palauan
ʔad man; person; human being; living being; someone; somebody; anyone; anybody
ʔəda-l person of
CMP Bimanese
ada slave, servant; I
Komodo
ata person, people; who, which
Manggarai
ata person, human being; male, masculine; inhabitants, people, race; other people, foreigners, ghosts, spirits
Rembong
ata person, human being; relative pronoun
anak ata child (of someone else)
Ngadha
ata person, human image; enemy; someone
ata dzara horse rider
ata vai person who goes on foot
Li'o
ata person, people
Sika
ʔata person, human being
Lamaholot
ata person
Adonara
ata person
Solorese
ata person, human being
Kédang
ata diʔen people
ata-n man, person
Lamboya
ata people, person
Kambera
ata servant, slave
Rotinese
ata slave; also used to call a serf who is not a slave, and as a humilific form of the first person singular pronoun when addressing a prince
Tetun
ata slave, servant; shepherd, herdsman
bibi ata goatkeeper
kuda ata groom
toʔos ata gardener or farmer
Vaikenu
atɛ slave
Erai
ata human being; this word is used in certain cases only: ata mate 'corpse, ghost', and ata laik eha 'stranger'
Leti
ata slave
Wetan
ata slave, servant
Selaru
at, ata-re slave
Kamarian
ata slave
Proto-Ambon
*ata slave
Asilulu
ata slave (archaic)
Larike
ata person
Buruese
ata servant, slave; adopted son; a male or female servant; a male slave purchased from another clan, often given a wife by purchasing clan
WMP Ilokano
aguás edible fresh-water fish; it is very similar to the puroŋ, but its scales are smaller
Casiguran Dumagat
agwas kind of ocean fish
Tagalog
agwás mullet (when still spawning)
Chamorro
agwas baby mullet: Neomyxus chaptalii
OC Seimat
au large mullet (3-4 feet in length)
Gilbertese
aua mullet
Woleaian
yaiuw(a) kind of fish: Neomyxus chaptalii, etc.
Dubea
kava mullet
Tongan
ʔaua mullet sp.
Tokelauan
aua silvery mullet: Neomyxus chaptalii
WMP Ilokano
aroó filao, beefwood, Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. A leafless, dioecious tree with oblong cones; roots and bark are used for medicinal purposes: their infusion, when drunk at regular intervals, is supposed to cure bad humors, especially in women suffering from diseases of the womb
Tagalog
agúho a tree: Casuarina equisetifolia
Minangkabau
(h)aru a tree: Casuarina equisetifolia
SHWNG Windesi
yaru a tree: Casuarina equisetifolia
Numfor
yār a tree: Casuarina equisetifolia
WMP Itbayaten
ayos-an brook
Ibatan
ayos current
Ilokano
árus to drift; to drive, to carry (as currents do)
Tagalog
ágos flow of liquid, or direction of current
Cebuano
águs ooze, flow out slowly (as pus from a wound)
Maranao
agos outlet of pond or lake
Binukid
agus for poison, etc. to spread through (a body of water)
Melanau (Mukah)
aus current of air, as from someone blowing through a tube
Ngaju Dayak
asoh downward flow of a river
Banjarese
harus current
Iban
arus current (in stream)
Malay
harus current (in sea or river)
Simalur
alus pulling, dragging (said of rivers)
alus-alus name of a river on the south coast of the island of Simalur
Nias
hou current (in the sea)
ho-hou current (in a river)
mo-ho-hou run, stampede (of a crowd of people)
Lampung
haxus current (of river)
Old Javanese
hos exerting oneself, (moving) with difficulty, going heavily, heavy (heart, breathing)
Javanese
os-os let something escape through an opening (as the air from a tire)
Balinese
ahus an air-current, draught
Sasak
arus current in the sea
Mandar
arus current
Buginese
aruʔ weep hard
Makassarese
arusuʔ current, flow; gulf stream
SHWNG Kowiai/Koiwai
larus current
OC Bunama
ʔalusa current
Mailu
aru-ai to drift
aru-aru to flow
Motu
aru current of river or sea; to flow, to rush, of a crowd
Tubetube
kalus-i current (in the sea)
Chuukese
éwú- (in compounds only) current, flow (of water)
éwút- current (at sea), eddy
Mota
ar currents in the sea between Mota and Gaua
ar gaua carries to Gaua
Fijian
yau carry, bring
Tongan
ʔau current, stream; (of pus) to ooze out, flow (but blood is said to tafe); (of a boil, etc.) to give out pus
Samoan
au flow on, roll on; continue; current; stream; carry (in the hand)
au-au current
au-ŋa flow; succession
Tuvaluan
au sea current
Kapingamarangi
au current
Nukuoro
au the generic term for the major types of currents in the open sea
Anuta
au ocean current
Rarotongan
au a current, as of a river or of the ocean; the wake of a boat or ship
Maori
au current, wake of a canoe; rapid; whirlpool
Hawaiian
au current; movement, eddy, tide, motion; to move, drift, float, walk, hurry, stir; succession or train, as of thought
WMP Malay
tahi harus driftwood and scum in a tideway
Makassarese
tai arusuʔ kind of black, slippery and shiny seaweed from which whips or armrings are made
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
ahutay skin from the wild banana plant, used to make string; to make string from the wild banana plant
Hanunóo
ʔagútay a species of plant
Tboli
klutay a plant similar to the banana or abaca plant, with inedible fruit
Bilaan (Sarangani)
lutay abaca
WMP Ilokano
asák pass between, wriggle through; make one's way through grasses, between objects or persons, etc.
ma-asák be passable, transitable
Malay
(h)asak stuffing; insertion by force or pressure
Alas
asak stuff or press in
Karo Batak
asak jostle, crowd out
Dairi-Pakpak Batak
asak fill a gun, stuff or cram something in; press against
Simalungun Batak
asak stuff, pack in
Angkola-Mandailing Batak
asak-asak iron used to clean gun barrel
Wolio
asak-i press, suppress (desires)
Formosan Sakizaya
acawa spouse; husband, wife
mala-acawa to marry, get married, become husband and wife
mala-acawa-ay to be a married couple
mapa-acawa to be betrothed
pa-acawa to pledge in marriage
pa-acawa-ay matchmaker
Amis
ʔacawa child’s spouse, son-in-law or daughter-in-law
WMP Ilokano
asáwa husband, wife; pendant, one of a pair, match, companion piece, counterpart
maki-asáwa to marry, wed, said of women
Ibanag
atáwa spouse
Isneg
atáwa husband, wife
Itawis
atáwa spouse: husband, wife
m-átawa husband and wife
maki-atáwa to marry, said of girls
Malaweg
əsáwa spouse
Bontok
ʔasáwa marry; spouse
Kankanaey
asáwa husband, bridegroom, spouse, wife, bride; mate, counterpart, pendant, fellow, equal, like, match
Ifugaw
aháwa husband or wife
Casiguran Dumagat
asáwa spouse: husband, wife
Pangasinan
asawá spouse; marry
Sambal (Botolan)
aháwa spouse
Ayta Maganchi
ahawa spouse
Kapampangan
asáwa spouse; (metaphor) one of a pair; like mortar and pestle
Tagalog
asáwa espouse
Hanunóo
ʔasáwa spouse, i.e. husband or wife
Aklanon
asáwa spouse: husband, wife; married (said of a woman)
Kalamian Tagbanwa
kasawa spouse
Hiligaynon
asáwa wife
Palawan Batak
ʔasáwa spouse: husband or wife
Cebuano
asáwa wife; happen to get for a wife, can marry
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
esawa spouse
Mansaka
asawa wife
Molbog
osawa spouse
Bonggi
saa spouse
Kadazan Dusun
savo husband, wife; better half
Bisaya (Limbang)
sao wife
Bisaya
sawo wife
Belait
sabah wife
Kelabit
awa-n spouse
Tring
awah spouse
Miri
abah wife
Kayan
hawa- spouse
hawaʔ marriage, a wedding
Kiput
safah wife
Bintulu
saba wife
Melanau (Mukah)
sawa spouse
sawa lay husband
sawa mahew wife
Melanau Dalat (Kampung Teh)
sawa spouse
Lahanan
sawa- spouse
Tunjung
saga-n wife
Ngaju Dayak
sawae wife; marriage (from the man's perspective)
Kapuas
sawa- wife
Muna
soa wife
Chamorro
asagua spouse, husband, wife, mate
CMP Rotinese
sao marry; spouse: husband, wife
Erai
hoa to marry
Leti
so spouse
Moa
sawa spouse
Selaru
sawa- spouse
Yamdena
sawe spouse
sawa-n his or her spouse
Ujir
sa spouse
Dobel
yakwa spouse
Masiwang
sawa-n spouse
SHWNG Kowiai/Koiwai
soa spouse
Windesi
sawa husband (or 'man'?; cf. Anceaux 1961:29)
Numfor
swa spouse
OC Lou
asoa- husband
Lenkau
asoa- husband
Seimat
axoa- spouse
Wuvulu
axo- spouse
Aua
aro- spouse
Lusi
arawa spouse
Kove
aroa spouse
Tarpia
tawa husband
Gitua
azua spouse; husband, wife
Numbami
asowa spouse
Ubir
awa spouse
awa- spouse
Gapapaiwa
kawa spouse
Mukawa
kawa spouse
Magori
garawa spouse
Hula
arawa spouse
Motu
adava- husband, wife
adava-ia marry
Roro
atawa- spouse
Mekeo (East)
akava husband
Raga
ahoa- husband
Axamb
asuo- husband
suo- wife
Southeast Ambrym
asou- spouse
Paamese
asoo- spouse
WMP Ilokano
maŋ-asáwa to marry, wed, said of men
Isneg
maŋ-atáwa to marry, said of boys
Itawis
maŋ-atáwa get married
Bontok
maŋ-asáwa to marry
Ifugaw
maŋ-aháwa to marry actually
Pangasinan
maŋ-asawá to marry
Kapampangan
maŋ-asáwa (old) arrange marriage, (new) have sexual intercourse
Mansaka
maŋ-asawa to marry
Kayan
ŋe-hawaʔ marry, wed
WMP Isneg
max-atáwa to marry, said of both sexes
max-atáwa-da they are husband and wife
Kapampangan
mi-asáwa be married
Aklanon
mag-asawá be husband and wife, be married
Hiligaynon
mag-asáwa take a wife, marry
Mansaka
mag-asawa couple; husband and wife; family
[Malay
ber-isteri (of a man of rank) to be married]
[Toba Batak
mar-jolma have a wife]
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
p-asawa married couple
Cebuano
pa-asáwa be married off to
Kadazan Dusun
pa-pa-savo give in marriage; make or let marry (of boy)
Kayan
pe-hawaʔ to marry; being married; already married
Melanau (Mukah)
pe-sawa marriage
Ngaju Dayak
pa-sawa to marry off, as a father marrying off his son
CMP Yamdena
fa-saw wedding; carrying out of a wedding
Watubela
fa-kha to wed, marry
WMP Casiguran Dumagat
peŋ-asawa an engaged person
[Kapampangan
paŋ-asáwa-n rape someone]
Cebuano
paŋ-asáwa for men to get married
WMP Kapampangan
tala-asáwa a married person
Manobo (Western Bukidnon)
tele-ʔesawa man and wife; married couple
WMP Bontok
ʔin-ʔasáwa marry one another (reciprocal)
Melanau (Mukah)
s-en-awa to have been married to
WMP Bontok
ʔasaw-ən marry
Ifugaw (Batad)
ahāwaʔon the person whom one marries, spouse
Hiligaynon
asáwa-un take a wife, marry
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
Hasev smoky
Hasv-an smoke
WMP Acehnese
asab smoke, soot, steam
Javanese
aseb smoke; steam
WMP Tunjung
asaŋ heart
ŋ-asaŋ breathe
Ngaju Dayak
aseŋ breath
palakuan aseŋ panjaŋ ask for a long breath (life)
Ba'amang
mana-hanséŋ breathe
Kapuas
na-haséŋ breathe
Malagasy
aína life, animal life, strength
mi-aìna live, have life; respire, breathe
Simalur
aseŋ breath
um-aseŋ breathe
um-aseŋ-aseŋ breath violently, pant, puff, gasp
aseŋ-aseŋ cane for the air supply in a bellows
aseŋ-aseŋ bano lit. 'breath of the land') prince
Balinese
aŋseŋ breathe
aŋseŋ-an breath, breathing; hot blast of air
Proto-Minahasan
*aseŋ breath; to breathe
Tondano
aseŋ breath; to breathe
Tontemboan
aseŋ breath
ma-aseŋ breathe; take a break, take a breather
ni-aseŋ-an place where one has taken a break
WMP Ilokano
asép incense, perfume
Sundanese
haseup smoke, steam, soot
Old Javanese
asep incense
p-asep-an incense-burner
Balinese
asep smoke, give off smoke; the smoke of sacrifice, incense; thick smoke
asep meñan the smoke of incense
WMP Ilokano
asp-án to incense, to perfume
Sundanese
haseup-an funnel-shaped basket of plaited bamboo in which rice is steamed over a water-filled earthen pot; steaming basket
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
Haspa astringent, puckery (the taste of green bananas, the kernel of areca nut, persimmon, etc.)
WMP Iban
sepa stale, kept too long
Malay
sepa insipid, tasting "woody", of tubers
Old Javanese
sepa insipid, tasteless, weak
Javanese
sepa insipid, tasteless
WMP Malagasy (Provincial)
ásy respect, veneration
mi-àsy show respect, honor
Banjarese
asi obedient, devoted to
Makassarese
asi treat someone with respect and awe
Palauan
ʔat- to praise
Formosan Puyuma (Tamalakaw)
Hasil salty
WMP Yami
asin salt
Itbayaten
asin salt (solid), table salt
Ilokano
asín salt
pag-asin-án saltcellar
Isneg
asín salt
na-asín salted, salty
aŋ-asin-ān salt container (bamboo tube, small calabash, or diminutive jar)
Itawis
asín salt
n-ásin salty
n-asin-an salted
mat-ásin eat only rice balls dipped in salt
Bontok
ʔasín salt; hot mineral springs, also the crystal deposits formed around the springs; add salt to something; sprinkle yeast on cooked rice in the making of rice beer
Kankanaey
asín salt
Ifugaw
ahín salt
Ifugaw (Batad)
ahín salt; to salt food
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